Google Toolbar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Developer: Google
Latest release: 4.0 (IE) 3.0b (Firefox) / 2006
OS: Microsoft Windows
Mac OS X
Linux
Genre: Toolbar
License: Proprietary freeware
Website: www.toolbar.google.com
Google Toolbar in FirefoxGoogle Toolbar is an Internet browser toolbar available for Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox (with slightly different features).
Features
Standard
Google search box using Google Suggest
SpellCheck
AutoLink
AutoFill
Translator
PageRank display
Send to: send webpage via SMS, GMail or to a Blogger blog
Google Account sign-in
Google Bookmarks
Google Toolbar Custom Buttons
Internet Explorer Only
Search Settings Notifier
Pop-up blocker
Address bar browse by name
Firefox Only
Open files in Google Docs & Spreadsheets
Customize the layout
Handle mailto: links with Gmail.
Google Compute
Google Compute was a separately downloadable add-on for the Google Toolbar which allowed participation in a distributed computing project to help scientific research. It started on a limited basis in March 2002[1] and ended in October 2005.[2] [3]
Google Compute enabled a user's computer to help solve challenging scientific problems when the computer would otherwise be idle. When one enabled Google Compute, the computer downloaded a small piece of a large research problem and performed calculations on it that were then included with results from thousands of other computers. Google Compute was only available for the English language version of the Google Toolbar.[4]
The effort's first, and so far only, contribution was to Folding@home, a non-profit endeavor to model the process of protein folding in order to better understand and cure many different diseases. The Google Compute homepage recommends that users wishing to continue contributions to the project download the official Folding@home client.
The Google Compute client.
References
^ Olsen, Stefanie. "Google tests distributed computing", CNet News, March 27, 2003.
^ Support center. Folding@Home. "The Google compute program has ended."
^ Is Google quitting the project?. Folding Community (October 22, 2005).
^ Shankland, Stephen. "Google takes on supercomputing", CNet News, March 22, 2002.
Saturday, August 11, 2007
AdSense
AdSense
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
AdSense is an ad serving program run by Google. Website owners can enroll in this program to enable text, image and, more recently, video advertisements on their sites. These ads are administered by Google and generate revenue on either a per-click or per-thousand-impressions basis. Google is also currently beta-testing a cost-per-action based service.
Google utilizes its search technology to serve ads based on website content, the user's geographical location, and other factors. Those wanting to advertise with Google's targeted ad system may sign up through AdWords. AdSense has become a popular method of placing advertising on a website because the ads are less intrusive than most banners, and the content of the ads is often relevant to the website.
Currently, the AdSense uses JavaScript code to incorporate the advertisements into a participating site. If it is included on a site which has not yet been crawled by the Mediabot, it will temporarily display advertisements for charitable causes known as public service announcements (PSAs). (Note that the Mediabot is a separate crawler from the Googlebot that maintains Google's search index.)
Many sites use AdSense to monetize their content and some webmasters work hard to maximize their own AdSense income. They do this in three ways:
They use a wide range of traffic generating techniques including but not limited to online advertising.
They build valuable content on their sites which attracts AdSense ads which pay out the most when they get clicked.
They use copy on their websites that encourage clicks on ads. Note that Google prohibits people from using phrases like "Click on my AdSense ads" to increase click rates. Phrases accepted are "Sponsored Links" and "Advertisements".
The source of all AdSense income is the AdWords program which in turn has a complex pricing model based on a Vickrey second price auction, in that it commands an advertiser to submit a sealed bid (not observable by competitors). Additionally, for any given click received, advertisers only pay one bid increment above the second-highest bid.
History
The underlying technology behind AdSense was derived originally from WordNet and Simpli, a company started by the founder of Wordnet — George A. Miller — and a number of professors and graduate students from Brown University, including James A. Anderson, Jeff Stibel and Steve Reiss.[1] A variation of this technology utilizing Wordnet was developed by Oingo, a small search engine company based in Santa Monica founded in 1998.[2] Oingo focused on semantic searches rather than brute force string searches.[3] Oingo changed its name to Applied Semantics, which was then bought by Google for $102 million in April 2003, to replace a similar system being developed in house.[4]
AdSense for feeds
In May 2005, Google unveiled AdSense for feeds, a version of AdSense that runs on RSS and Atom feeds that have more than 100 active subscribers. According to the Official Google Blog, "advertisers have their ads placed in the most appropriate feed articles; publishers are paid for their original content; readers see relevant advertising — and in the long run, more quality feeds to choose from".
AdSense for feeds works by inserting images into a feed. When the image is displayed by the reader/browser, Google writes the ad content into the image that it returns. The ad content is chosen based on the content of the feed surrounding the image. When the user clicks the image, he or she is redirected to the advertiser's site in the same way as regular AdSense ads.
AdSense for search
A companion to the regular AdSense program, AdSense for search lets website owners place Google search boxes on their pages. When a user searches the web or the site with the search box, Google shares any ad revenue it makes from those searches with the site owner. However, only if the ads on the page are clicked, the publisher is paid. Adsense does not pay publishers for mere searches.
How AdSense works
Each time a visitor visits a page with an AdSense tag, a piece of JavaScript writes an iframe tag, whose src attribute includes the URL of the page. Google's servers use a cache of the page for the URL or the keywords in the URL itself to determine a set of high-value keywords. (Some of the details are described in the AdSense patent). If keywords have been cached already, ads are served for those keywords based on the AdWords bidding system.
Abuse
Some webmasters create sites tailored to lure searchers from Google and other engines onto their AdSense site to make money from clicks. These "zombie" sites often contain nothing but a large amount of interconnected, automated content (e.g.: A directory with content from the Open Directory Project, or scraper sites relying on RSS feeds for content). Possibly the most popular form of such "AdSense farms" are splogs ("spam blogs"), which are centered around known high-paying keywords. Many of these sites use content from other web sites, such as Wikipedia, to attract visitors. These and related approaches are considered to be search engine spam and can be reported to Google.
There have also been reports of Trojans engineered to produce fake Google ads that are formatted to look like legitimate ones. The Trojan Horse apparently downloads itself onto an unsuspecting computer through a web page and then replaces the original ads with its own set of malicious ads.[5]
Criticism
Due to concerns about click fraud, Google AdSense has been criticized by some Search engine optimization firms as a large source of what Google calls "invalid clicks" in which one company clicks on a rival's search engine ads to drive up its costs.[6] Some publishers have been blocked by Google, complaining that little justification or transparency was provided. Webmasters who publish Adsense can receive a lifelong ban without justification Google claims the revealing of any information may reveal the nature of their "proprietary" click fraud system and Google will not 'disclose any specific details'.[7].
To help prevent click fraud, publishers can choose from a number of click tracking programs. These programs will display detailed information about the visitors who click on the AdSense advertisements. Publishers can use that data to determine if they've been a victim of click fraud or not. There are a number of such commercial scripts available for purchase. An open source alternative is AdLogger.
Google has also come under fire for allowing AdWords advertisers to abuse trademarks. In 2004, Google started allowing advertisers to bid on any search terms, including the trademarks of their competitors.[8]
The payment terms for AdSense customers have also been criticized.[9] Google withholds payment until an account reaches US$100 [10], but many small content providers require a long time - years in many cases - to build up this much AdSense revenue. These pending payments are recorded on Google's balance sheet as "accrued revenue share". [11] At the close of its 2006 fiscal year, the sum of all these small debts amounted to a little over US $370 million - cash that Google is able to invest but which effectively belongs to its customers. However, Google will pay all earned revenue, even if smaller than 100 dollars, when the Adsense account is closed.
Google came recently under fire after the official Google AdSense Blog showcased the French video-site Imineo.com that clearly violates Google’s AdSense Program Policies by displaying AdSense near explicit adult content while other site owners were banned for showing adult content.[12]
See also
List of Google products
AdSense for MediaWiki
BidClix
Kanoodle
Yahoo! Search Marketing
List of acquisitions by Google
References
^ Om Malik. "How Google is that?", Forbes, 1999-04-10.
^ Paula J. Hane. "Beyond Keyword Searching", Info Today, 1999-12-20.
^ Sherman Fridman. "NetZero Acquires Simpli.com's Marketing Technology", Newsbytes PM, 2000-05-25.
^ "Google Acquires Applied Semantics", Press release, 2003-04-23.
^ Benaifer Jah. "Trojan Horse program that targets Google Adsense ads", TechShout, 2005-12-27.
^ Charles C. Mann. "How click fraud could swallow the internet", Wired, January 2006.
^ Benjamin Cohen. "The nonsense about AdSense", The Times, 2006-07-04.
^ Stefanie Olsen. "Google plans trademark gambit", CNET, 2004-04-13.
^ Lem Bingley. "Google keeps on coining it in", IT Week, 2007-02-01.
^ When do I get paid?. Google AdSense Help Center.
^ Google Announces Fourth Quarter And Fiscal Year 2006 Results. Google Investor Relations (2007-01-31).
^ Rado Vleugel. "Official Google AdSense Blog showcases Website that displays AdSense near Adult Content", RadoVleugel.com, 2007-06-07.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
AdSense is an ad serving program run by Google. Website owners can enroll in this program to enable text, image and, more recently, video advertisements on their sites. These ads are administered by Google and generate revenue on either a per-click or per-thousand-impressions basis. Google is also currently beta-testing a cost-per-action based service.
Google utilizes its search technology to serve ads based on website content, the user's geographical location, and other factors. Those wanting to advertise with Google's targeted ad system may sign up through AdWords. AdSense has become a popular method of placing advertising on a website because the ads are less intrusive than most banners, and the content of the ads is often relevant to the website.
Currently, the AdSense uses JavaScript code to incorporate the advertisements into a participating site. If it is included on a site which has not yet been crawled by the Mediabot, it will temporarily display advertisements for charitable causes known as public service announcements (PSAs). (Note that the Mediabot is a separate crawler from the Googlebot that maintains Google's search index.)
Many sites use AdSense to monetize their content and some webmasters work hard to maximize their own AdSense income. They do this in three ways:
They use a wide range of traffic generating techniques including but not limited to online advertising.
They build valuable content on their sites which attracts AdSense ads which pay out the most when they get clicked.
They use copy on their websites that encourage clicks on ads. Note that Google prohibits people from using phrases like "Click on my AdSense ads" to increase click rates. Phrases accepted are "Sponsored Links" and "Advertisements".
The source of all AdSense income is the AdWords program which in turn has a complex pricing model based on a Vickrey second price auction, in that it commands an advertiser to submit a sealed bid (not observable by competitors). Additionally, for any given click received, advertisers only pay one bid increment above the second-highest bid.
History
The underlying technology behind AdSense was derived originally from WordNet and Simpli, a company started by the founder of Wordnet — George A. Miller — and a number of professors and graduate students from Brown University, including James A. Anderson, Jeff Stibel and Steve Reiss.[1] A variation of this technology utilizing Wordnet was developed by Oingo, a small search engine company based in Santa Monica founded in 1998.[2] Oingo focused on semantic searches rather than brute force string searches.[3] Oingo changed its name to Applied Semantics, which was then bought by Google for $102 million in April 2003, to replace a similar system being developed in house.[4]
AdSense for feeds
In May 2005, Google unveiled AdSense for feeds, a version of AdSense that runs on RSS and Atom feeds that have more than 100 active subscribers. According to the Official Google Blog, "advertisers have their ads placed in the most appropriate feed articles; publishers are paid for their original content; readers see relevant advertising — and in the long run, more quality feeds to choose from".
AdSense for feeds works by inserting images into a feed. When the image is displayed by the reader/browser, Google writes the ad content into the image that it returns. The ad content is chosen based on the content of the feed surrounding the image. When the user clicks the image, he or she is redirected to the advertiser's site in the same way as regular AdSense ads.
AdSense for search
A companion to the regular AdSense program, AdSense for search lets website owners place Google search boxes on their pages. When a user searches the web or the site with the search box, Google shares any ad revenue it makes from those searches with the site owner. However, only if the ads on the page are clicked, the publisher is paid. Adsense does not pay publishers for mere searches.
How AdSense works
Each time a visitor visits a page with an AdSense tag, a piece of JavaScript writes an iframe tag, whose src attribute includes the URL of the page. Google's servers use a cache of the page for the URL or the keywords in the URL itself to determine a set of high-value keywords. (Some of the details are described in the AdSense patent). If keywords have been cached already, ads are served for those keywords based on the AdWords bidding system.
Abuse
Some webmasters create sites tailored to lure searchers from Google and other engines onto their AdSense site to make money from clicks. These "zombie" sites often contain nothing but a large amount of interconnected, automated content (e.g.: A directory with content from the Open Directory Project, or scraper sites relying on RSS feeds for content). Possibly the most popular form of such "AdSense farms" are splogs ("spam blogs"), which are centered around known high-paying keywords. Many of these sites use content from other web sites, such as Wikipedia, to attract visitors. These and related approaches are considered to be search engine spam and can be reported to Google.
There have also been reports of Trojans engineered to produce fake Google ads that are formatted to look like legitimate ones. The Trojan Horse apparently downloads itself onto an unsuspecting computer through a web page and then replaces the original ads with its own set of malicious ads.[5]
Criticism
Due to concerns about click fraud, Google AdSense has been criticized by some Search engine optimization firms as a large source of what Google calls "invalid clicks" in which one company clicks on a rival's search engine ads to drive up its costs.[6] Some publishers have been blocked by Google, complaining that little justification or transparency was provided. Webmasters who publish Adsense can receive a lifelong ban without justification Google claims the revealing of any information may reveal the nature of their "proprietary" click fraud system and Google will not 'disclose any specific details'.[7].
To help prevent click fraud, publishers can choose from a number of click tracking programs. These programs will display detailed information about the visitors who click on the AdSense advertisements. Publishers can use that data to determine if they've been a victim of click fraud or not. There are a number of such commercial scripts available for purchase. An open source alternative is AdLogger.
Google has also come under fire for allowing AdWords advertisers to abuse trademarks. In 2004, Google started allowing advertisers to bid on any search terms, including the trademarks of their competitors.[8]
The payment terms for AdSense customers have also been criticized.[9] Google withholds payment until an account reaches US$100 [10], but many small content providers require a long time - years in many cases - to build up this much AdSense revenue. These pending payments are recorded on Google's balance sheet as "accrued revenue share". [11] At the close of its 2006 fiscal year, the sum of all these small debts amounted to a little over US $370 million - cash that Google is able to invest but which effectively belongs to its customers. However, Google will pay all earned revenue, even if smaller than 100 dollars, when the Adsense account is closed.
Google came recently under fire after the official Google AdSense Blog showcased the French video-site Imineo.com that clearly violates Google’s AdSense Program Policies by displaying AdSense near explicit adult content while other site owners were banned for showing adult content.[12]
See also
List of Google products
AdSense for MediaWiki
BidClix
Kanoodle
Yahoo! Search Marketing
List of acquisitions by Google
References
^ Om Malik. "How Google is that?", Forbes, 1999-04-10.
^ Paula J. Hane. "Beyond Keyword Searching", Info Today, 1999-12-20.
^ Sherman Fridman. "NetZero Acquires Simpli.com's Marketing Technology", Newsbytes PM, 2000-05-25.
^ "Google Acquires Applied Semantics", Press release, 2003-04-23.
^ Benaifer Jah. "Trojan Horse program that targets Google Adsense ads", TechShout, 2005-12-27.
^ Charles C. Mann. "How click fraud could swallow the internet", Wired, January 2006.
^ Benjamin Cohen. "The nonsense about AdSense", The Times, 2006-07-04.
^ Stefanie Olsen. "Google plans trademark gambit", CNET, 2004-04-13.
^ Lem Bingley. "Google keeps on coining it in", IT Week, 2007-02-01.
^ When do I get paid?. Google AdSense Help Center.
^ Google Announces Fourth Quarter And Fiscal Year 2006 Results. Google Investor Relations (2007-01-31).
^ Rado Vleugel. "Official Google AdSense Blog showcases Website that displays AdSense near Adult Content", RadoVleugel.com, 2007-06-07.
AdWords
AdWords
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A Google promotional graphic, highlighting AdWordsAdWords is Google's flagship advertising product and main source of revenue. AdWords offers pay-per-click (PPC) advertising, and site-targeted advertising for both text and banner ads. The AdWords program includes local, national, and international distribution. Google's text advertisements are short, consisting of one title line and two content text lines. Image ads can be one of several different Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB) standard sizes.
Google's AdWords division is based in Mountain View, California.
Pay-Per-Click advertisements (PPC)
Advertisers specify the words that should trigger their ads and the maximum amount they are willing to pay per click. When a user searches Google's search engine on www.google.com, ads for relevant words are shown as "sponsored link" on the right side of the screen, and sometimes above the main search results.
The ordering of the paid listings depends on other advertisers' bids (pay for placement P4P) and the "quality score" of all ads shown for a given search. The quality score is calculated by historical click-through rates and the relevance of an advertiser's ad text, keyword, and landing page to the search, as determined by Google. The quality score is also used by Google to set the minimum bids for an advertiser's keywords.[1]
The auction mechanism that determines the order of the ads has been called a "generalized second price" auction. It is a variation of the Vickrey auction.
Site targeted advertisements
In 2003 Google introduced site-targeted advertising. Using the AdWords control panel, advertisers can enter keywords of interest, and Google offers to place ads on what they claim are relevant sites within their content network. Advertisers then bid on a cost per mille (CPM) basis for placement. Advertisers can also enter domains directly. Google will provide a list of related sites that you can select along with your entered site.
Site targeting campaigns are mainly designed for branding purposes, as the ROI will almost always be considerably lower than a traditional content-targeted campaign. Your ad will take up the entire ad block (as opposed to being 1 of 4 ads in a traditional AdSense ad unit), which will make it more prominent but cost quite a bit more.
The minimum CPM you can set on a Site-Targeted campaign is 25 cents.
AdWords distribution
All AdWords ads are eligible to be shown on www.google.com. Advertisers also have the option of enabling their ads to show on Google's partner networks. The "search network" includes AOL search, Ask.com, and Netscape. Like www.google.com, these search engines show AdWords ads in response to user searches.
The "content network" shows AdWords ads on sites that are not search engines. These content network sites are those that use AdSense, the other side of the Google advertising model. AdSense is used by publishers who wish to bring traffic to their websites. Click through rates on the content network are typically much lower than those on the search network and are therefore ignored when calculating an advertiser's quality score.
Google automatically determines the subject of pages and displays relevant ads based on the advertisers' keyword lists. AdSense publishers may select channels to help direct Google's ad placements on their pages, to better track performance of their ad units. There are many different types of ads you can run across Google's network, including text ads, image ads (banner ads), local business ads, mobile text ads, and in-page video ads.
Google AdWords' main competitors are Yahoo! Search Marketing and Microsoft adCenter.
AdWords Account Management
To help clients with the complexity of building and managing AdWords accounts search engine marketing agencies and consultants offer account management as a business service. This has allowed organisations that otherwise would not have the advertising skills to reach a global, online audience. Google has started the Google Advertising Professionals program to certify agencies and consultants who have met specific qualifications and passed an exam.[2]. Google also provides account management software, called AdWords Editor.
Click-to-Call
Google Click-to-Call is a service provided by Google which allows users to call advertisers from Google search results pages. Users enter their phone number, Google calls them back and connects to the advertiser. Calling charges are paid by Google.
History
The AdWords product was launched in 2000.[3] At first advertisers would pay a monthly amount, and Google would set up and manage their campaign. To accommodate small businesses and those who wanted to manage their own campaigns, Google soon introduced the AdWords self-service portal. As of 2005, Google provides a campaign management service called Jumpstart [4] to assist advertisers in setting up their campaigns.
In 2005, Google launched a the Google Advertising Profesional (GAP) Program to certify individuals and companies who have completed AdWords training and passed an exam. Due to the complexity of AdWords and the amount of money at stake, some advertisers hire a consultant to manage their campaigns.
Legal context
AdWords has generated lawsuits in the area of trademark law and click fraud. In 2006, Google settled a click fraud lawsuit for US$90 million. [5]
Overture Services, Inc. sued Google for patent infringement in April 2002 in relation to the AdWords service. Following Yahoo!'s acquisition of Overture, the suit was settled in 2004 with Google agreeing to issue 2.7 million shares of common stock to Yahoo! in exchange for a perpetual license under the patent. [6]
Technology
The AdWords system was initially implemented on top of the MySQL database engine. After the system had been launched, management decided to use a commercial database (Oracle) instead. As is typical of applications simultaneously written and tuned for one database, and ported to another, the system became much slower, so eventually it was returned to MySQL. [7]
See also
List of Google tools and services
Click fraud
Central ad server
References
^ How is my keyword's Quality Score used?. Google AdWords Help Center. Retrieved on 2006-11-07.
^ Google Advertising Professionals. adwords.google.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
^ Google Milestones
^ What is Jumpstart?
^ Associated Press. "Google settles advertising suit for $90 million", MSNBC, 2006-03-08.
^ Google, Yahoo bury the legal hatchet, Stefanie Olsen, CNET News.com, August 9, 2004
^ http://xooglers.blogspot.com/2005/12/lets-get-real-database.html
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A Google promotional graphic, highlighting AdWordsAdWords is Google's flagship advertising product and main source of revenue. AdWords offers pay-per-click (PPC) advertising, and site-targeted advertising for both text and banner ads. The AdWords program includes local, national, and international distribution. Google's text advertisements are short, consisting of one title line and two content text lines. Image ads can be one of several different Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB) standard sizes.
Google's AdWords division is based in Mountain View, California.
Pay-Per-Click advertisements (PPC)
Advertisers specify the words that should trigger their ads and the maximum amount they are willing to pay per click. When a user searches Google's search engine on www.google.com, ads for relevant words are shown as "sponsored link" on the right side of the screen, and sometimes above the main search results.
The ordering of the paid listings depends on other advertisers' bids (pay for placement P4P) and the "quality score" of all ads shown for a given search. The quality score is calculated by historical click-through rates and the relevance of an advertiser's ad text, keyword, and landing page to the search, as determined by Google. The quality score is also used by Google to set the minimum bids for an advertiser's keywords.[1]
The auction mechanism that determines the order of the ads has been called a "generalized second price" auction. It is a variation of the Vickrey auction.
Site targeted advertisements
In 2003 Google introduced site-targeted advertising. Using the AdWords control panel, advertisers can enter keywords of interest, and Google offers to place ads on what they claim are relevant sites within their content network. Advertisers then bid on a cost per mille (CPM) basis for placement. Advertisers can also enter domains directly. Google will provide a list of related sites that you can select along with your entered site.
Site targeting campaigns are mainly designed for branding purposes, as the ROI will almost always be considerably lower than a traditional content-targeted campaign. Your ad will take up the entire ad block (as opposed to being 1 of 4 ads in a traditional AdSense ad unit), which will make it more prominent but cost quite a bit more.
The minimum CPM you can set on a Site-Targeted campaign is 25 cents.
AdWords distribution
All AdWords ads are eligible to be shown on www.google.com. Advertisers also have the option of enabling their ads to show on Google's partner networks. The "search network" includes AOL search, Ask.com, and Netscape. Like www.google.com, these search engines show AdWords ads in response to user searches.
The "content network" shows AdWords ads on sites that are not search engines. These content network sites are those that use AdSense, the other side of the Google advertising model. AdSense is used by publishers who wish to bring traffic to their websites. Click through rates on the content network are typically much lower than those on the search network and are therefore ignored when calculating an advertiser's quality score.
Google automatically determines the subject of pages and displays relevant ads based on the advertisers' keyword lists. AdSense publishers may select channels to help direct Google's ad placements on their pages, to better track performance of their ad units. There are many different types of ads you can run across Google's network, including text ads, image ads (banner ads), local business ads, mobile text ads, and in-page video ads.
Google AdWords' main competitors are Yahoo! Search Marketing and Microsoft adCenter.
AdWords Account Management
To help clients with the complexity of building and managing AdWords accounts search engine marketing agencies and consultants offer account management as a business service. This has allowed organisations that otherwise would not have the advertising skills to reach a global, online audience. Google has started the Google Advertising Professionals program to certify agencies and consultants who have met specific qualifications and passed an exam.[2]. Google also provides account management software, called AdWords Editor.
Click-to-Call
Google Click-to-Call is a service provided by Google which allows users to call advertisers from Google search results pages. Users enter their phone number, Google calls them back and connects to the advertiser. Calling charges are paid by Google.
History
The AdWords product was launched in 2000.[3] At first advertisers would pay a monthly amount, and Google would set up and manage their campaign. To accommodate small businesses and those who wanted to manage their own campaigns, Google soon introduced the AdWords self-service portal. As of 2005, Google provides a campaign management service called Jumpstart [4] to assist advertisers in setting up their campaigns.
In 2005, Google launched a the Google Advertising Profesional (GAP) Program to certify individuals and companies who have completed AdWords training and passed an exam. Due to the complexity of AdWords and the amount of money at stake, some advertisers hire a consultant to manage their campaigns.
Legal context
AdWords has generated lawsuits in the area of trademark law and click fraud. In 2006, Google settled a click fraud lawsuit for US$90 million. [5]
Overture Services, Inc. sued Google for patent infringement in April 2002 in relation to the AdWords service. Following Yahoo!'s acquisition of Overture, the suit was settled in 2004 with Google agreeing to issue 2.7 million shares of common stock to Yahoo! in exchange for a perpetual license under the patent. [6]
Technology
The AdWords system was initially implemented on top of the MySQL database engine. After the system had been launched, management decided to use a commercial database (Oracle) instead. As is typical of applications simultaneously written and tuned for one database, and ported to another, the system became much slower, so eventually it was returned to MySQL. [7]
See also
List of Google tools and services
Click fraud
Central ad server
References
^ How is my keyword's Quality Score used?. Google AdWords Help Center. Retrieved on 2006-11-07.
^ Google Advertising Professionals. adwords.google.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
^ Google Milestones
^ What is Jumpstart?
^ Associated Press. "Google settles advertising suit for $90 million", MSNBC, 2006-03-08.
^ Google, Yahoo bury the legal hatchet, Stefanie Olsen, CNET News.com, August 9, 2004
^ http://xooglers.blogspot.com/2005/12/lets-get-real-database.html
Mozilla Firefox
Mozilla Firefox
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mozilla Firefox 2 running on Ubuntu, displaying the English Wikipedia main page
Maintainer: Mozilla Corporation / Mozilla Foundation
Stable release: 2.0.0.6 (July 30, 2007) [+/-]
Preview release: 3.0a7 (July 31, 2007) [+/-]
OS: Cross-platform
Available language(s): Multilingual,[1] EULA in English only[2]
Use: Web browser
License: Mozilla EULA for binary redistribution
Website: http://www.mozilla.com/firefox/
Firefox (category)
Mozilla
Foundation • Corporation
Community / Customization
Features • Extensions (category)
Spread Firefox • Adoption • Firemonger
Forks and Related Projects
Flock • GNU IceWeasel
Portable Edition • Netscape 9
Swiftfox • Swiftweasel
XeroBank
Origins and Lineage
Mozilla Application Suite
Netscape Communicator
Netscape Communications Corp.
The Book of Mozilla
This box: view • talk • edit
Mozilla Firefox is a graphical web browser developed by the Mozilla Corporation, and a large community of external contributors. Firefox, officially abbreviated as Fx or fx[3] and popularly abbreviated FF,[4] started as a fork of the Navigator browser component of the Mozilla Application Suite. Firefox has replaced the Mozilla Suite as the flagship product of the Mozilla project, under the direction of the Mozilla Foundation.
Mozilla Firefox is a cross-platform browser, providing support for various versions of Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. However, the source code has been unofficially ported to other operating systems, including FreeBSD,[5] OS/2, Solaris, RISC OS,[6] SkyOS, BeOS and more recently, Windows XP Professional x64 Edition.[7]
Firefox's source code is available under the terms of the Mozilla tri-license as free and open source software. The current stable release of Firefox is version 2.0.0.6, released on July 30, 2007.[8]
According to Market Share by Net Applications, 14.55% of the world's Web browsers used Firefox in June 2007, with 13.92% using version 1.5 or higher. [9]
History
Main article: History of Mozilla Firefox
Dave Hyatt and Blake Ross began working on the Firefox project as an experimental branch of the Mozilla project. They believed the commercial requirements of Netscape's sponsorship and developer-driven feature creep compromised the utility of the Mozilla browser.[10] To combat what they saw as the Mozilla Suite's software bloat, they created a pared-down browser, with which they intended to replace the Mozilla Suite. On April 3, 2003, the Mozilla Organization announced that they planned to change their focus from the Mozilla Suite to Firefox and Thunderbird.[11]
The Firefox project has undergone several name changes. Originally titled Phoenix, it was renamed because of trademark issues with Phoenix Technologies. The replacement name, Firebird, provoked an intense response from the Firebird free database software project.[12][13][14] In response, the Mozilla Foundation stated that the browser should always bear the name Mozilla Firebird to avoid confusion with the database software. Continuing pressure from the database server's development community forced another change; on February 9, 2004, Mozilla Firebird became Mozilla Firefox (Firefox for short).[15]
The Firefox project went through many versions before 1.0 was released on November 9, 2004. In addition to stability and security fixes, the Mozilla Foundation released its first major update to Firefox version 1.5 on November 29, 2005. On October 24, 2006, Mozilla released Firefox 2. This version includes updates to the tabbed browsing environment, the extensions manager, the GUI, and the find, search and software update engines; a new session restore feature; inline spell checking; and an anti-phishing feature which was implemented by Google as an extension[16][17] and later merged into the program itself.[18]
Features
Main article: Features of Mozilla Firefox
Features included with Firefox are tabbed browsing, spell checker, incremental find (via the Find toolbar), Live bookmarking, an integrated download manager, and a search system that includes Google. The user can customize Firefox with downloadable extensions, themes, and advanced preferences not present in the Options dialog that are accessible via the about:config page.[19] The developers of Firefox aimed to produce a browser that "just surfs the web"[20] and delivers the "best possible browsing experience to the widest possible set of people."[21] Firefox provides an environment for web developers in which they can use built-in tools or extensions. These include the built-in JavaScript Console and the DOM Inspector. One of the most popular features of Firefox is its support for add-ons. These include Themes for the browser, but also extensions like Source Editor, Grease Monkey, and IE Tab which make special tasks easier, and improve browsing experience.
Standards support
Firefox market share
by version
July, 2007[22]
Firefox Betas 0.02 %
Firefox 1.0 0.53 %
Firefox 1.5 1.43 %
Firefox 2 12.38 %
Total 14.36 %
Mozilla Firefox supports many software standards, including HTML, XML, XHTML, CSS, ECMAScript (JavaScript), DOM, MathML, DTD, XSLT, XPath, and PNG images with alpha transparency.[23] In addition Firefox supports the SVG standard, however what exists in the current stable version should only be treated as a "technology preview", as it is not a full implementation.[24] Firefox also supports standards proposals created by the WHATWG such as the offline storage[25][26] and canvas element.[27] Although Firefox 2 does not pass the Acid2 standards-compliance test, development builds of Firefox 3 do.[28]
Security
Firefox uses SSL/TLS to protect communications with web servers using strong cryptography when using the HTTPS protocol.[29] It uses a sandbox security model[30] and the developers use a "bug bounty" scheme, for finding fixes for some security[31] and feature additions. Official guidelines for handling security vulnerabilities discourage early disclosure of vulnerabilities so as not to give potential attackers an advantage in creating exploits.[32]
Because Firefox has fewer and less severe publicly known unpatched security vulnerabilities than Internet Explorer (see Comparison of web browsers), improved security is often cited as a reason to switch from Internet Explorer to Firefox.[33][34][35][36] The Washington Post reports that exploit code for critical unpatched security vulnerabilities in Internet Explorer was available for 284 days in 2006. In comparison, exploit code for critical security vulnerabilities in Firefox was available for 9 days before Mozilla shipped a patch to remedy the problem.[37]
A 2006 Symantec study showed that Firefox had surpassed other browsers in the number of vendor-confirmed vulnerabilities that year through September; these vulnerabilities were patched far more quickly than those found in other browsers.[38] Symantec later clarified their statement, saying that Firefox still had fewer security vulnerabilities, as counted by security researchers.[39] As of July 9, 2007, Firefox 2 has 10 security vulnerabilities unpatched, the most severe of which was rated "less critical" by Secunia.[40] Internet Explorer has seven security vulnerabilities unpatched, the most severe of which was rated "moderately critical" by Secunia.[41] (Note that the number of "Secunia Advisories" listed for each does not reflect the actual number of vulnerabilities reported for each. Advisory SA23282 for Mozilla Firefox 2.0.x contains multiple vulnerabilities.)
Licensing
Firefox is free and open source software, and is tri-licensed under the Mozilla Public License (MPL), GNU General Public License (GPL), and the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL). These licenses permit anyone to view, modify and/or redistribute the source code, and several publicly released applications have been built on it; for example, Netscape, Flock and Songbird make use of code from Firefox.
The official end-user builds of Firefox distributed from mozilla.com are licensed under the Mozilla EULA.[2] Several elements do not fall under the scope of the tri-license and have their use restricted by the EULA, including the trademarked Firefox name and artwork, and the proprietary Talkback crash reporter. Because of this and the clickwrap agreement included in the Windows version, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) consider these builds proprietary software.[42]
In the past, Firefox was licensed solely under the MPL,[43] which the FSF criticizes for being weak copyleft; the license permits, in limited ways, proprietary derivative works. Additionally, code under the MPL cannot legally be linked with code under the GPL or the LGPL.[44][45] To address these concerns, Mozilla re-licensed Firefox under the tri-license scheme of MPL, GPL, and LGPL. Since the re-licensing, developers have been free to choose the license under which they will receive the code, to suit their intended use: GPL or LGPL linking and derivative works when one of those licenses is chosen, or MPL use (including the possibility of proprietary derivative works) if they choose the MPL.[43]
Trademark and logo issues
The generic globe logo used when Firefox is compiled without the official brandingThe name "Mozilla Firefox" is a registered trademark; along with the official Firefox logo, it may only be used under certain terms and conditions. Anyone may redistribute the official binaries in unmodified form and use the Firefox name and branding for such distribution, but restrictions are placed on distributions which modify the underlying source code.[46]
To allow distributions of the code without using the official branding, the Firefox source code contains a "branding switch". This switch allows the code to be compiled without the official logo and name, for example to produce a derivative work unencumbered by restrictions on the Firefox trademark (this is also often used for betas and alphas of future Firefox versions). In the unbranded compilation the trademarked logo and name are replaced with a freely distributable generic globe logo and the name of the release series from which the modified version was derived. The name "Deer Park" is used for derivatives of Firefox 1.5, "Bon Echo" for derivatives of Firefox 2.0, and "Gran Paradiso" is used for derivatives of Firefox 3.0.[citation needed]
Outside of certain exceptions made for "community editions", distributing modified versions of Firefox under the "Firefox" name requires explicit approval from Mozilla for the changes made to the underlying code, and requires the use of all of the official branding. For example, it is not permissible to use the name "Firefox" without also using the official logo. When the Debian project decided to stop using the official Firefox logo in 2006 (because of restrictions on its use incompatible with the project's guidelines), they were told by a representative of the Mozilla Foundation that this was not acceptable, and were asked to either comply with the published trademark guidelines or cease using the "Firefox" name in their distribution.[47] Ultimately, Debian switched to branding their modified version of Firefox "Iceweasel".
Advertising
The rapid adoption of Firefox, 100 million downloads in its first year of availability,[48] followed a series of aggressive marketing campaigns starting in 2004 with a series of events Blake Ross and Asa Dotzler called "marketing weeks".[49]
On September 12, 2004,[50] a marketing portal dubbed "Spread Firefox" (SFX) debuted along with the Firefox Preview Release, creating a centralized space for the discussion of various marketing techniques. The portal enhanced the "Get Firefox" button program, giving users "referrer points" as an incentive. The site lists the top 250 referrers. From time to time, the SFX team or SFX members launch marketing events organized at the Spread Firefox website.
The "World Firefox Day" campaign started on July 15, 2006[51] - the anniversary of the founding of the Mozilla Foundation - and ran until September 15, 2006. Participants registered themselves and a friend on the website for nomination to have their names displayed on the Firefox Friends Wall, a digital wall that will be displayed at the headquarters of the Mozilla Foundation.
Market adoption
Main article: Market adoption of Mozilla Firefox
See also: Usage share of web browsers
Usage share of Mozilla Firefox over timeMozilla Firefox's marketshare has grown for each growth period since inception, mostly at the expense of Internet Explorer. Internet Explorer has seen a steady decline of its usage share since Firefox's release. According to Dutch web analytics firm OneStat, by July 2006, Firefox was the second-most widely used browser, with 12.93% of global usage share.[52] By March 2007, according to data made available by U.S. firm NetApplications, Firefox's market share had grown to 15.1% globally.[53]
Downloads have continued at an increasing rate since Firefox 1.0 was released in November 2004, and as of February 12, 2007 Firefox has been downloaded over 300 million times. This number does not include downloads using software updates or from third-party websites.[54] They do not represent a user count, as one download may be installed on many machines, or one person may download the software multiple times. According to Mozilla CEO Mitchell Baker, Firefox had 75 to 100 million users as of May 2007.[55]
Critical reception
Forbes.com called Firefox the best browser in a 2004 commentary piece.[56] PC World named Firefox the "product of the year" in 2005 on their "100 Best Products of 2005" list.[57] After the release of Firefox 2 and Internet Explorer 7 in 2006, PC World reviewed both and declared that Firefox was the better browser.[58] Which? Magazine named Firefox its Best Buy web browser.[59]
Internet Week ran an article in which many readers reported high memory usage in Firefox 1.5.[60] Mozilla developers said the higher memory use of Firefox 1.5 is at least partially an effect of the new fast backwards-and-forwards (FastBack) feature.[61] Other known causes of memory problems are malfunctioning extensions, such as Google Toolbar and some old versions of Adblock,[62] or plug-ins, such as older versions of Adobe Acrobat Reader.[63] When PC Magazine compared memory usage of Firefox, Opera and Internet Explorer, they found that Firefox seemed to use only about as much memory as the other browsers.[64] Tests performed by PC World and Zimbra indicate that Firefox 2 uses less memory than Internet Explorer 7.[58][65]
Softpedia notes that Firefox takes longer to start up than other browsers,[66] which was confirmed by browser speed tests. IE 6 also launches slightly faster than Firefox on Microsoft Windows since many of its components are built into Windows and are loaded during system startup. As a workaround for the issue, a preloader application was created that loads components of Firefox on startup, similar to Internet Explorer.[67]
Relationship with Google
The Mozilla Corporation's relationship with Google[68][69] has been noted in the media, especially with regards to use of Firefox to provide revenues and data for Google. The release of the anti-phishing protection in Firefox 2 especially raised controversy.[70] Enabled by default, anti-phishing protection is based on a list that is updated about twice per hour and downloaded to the user's computer[71] from Google's server. The user cannot change the data provider within the GUI,[72] and is not informed who the default data provider is. The browser also sends Google's cookie with each request for update.[73] The "advanced" security feature of builds by the Mozilla Foundation activate an anti-phishing feature to provide live protection and, according to the Mozilla Wiki,[74] send each visited URL to Google.[75] The user must explicitly opt-in for this service, however. There are Internet privacy concerns surrounding how Google may use the data, even though Firefox's privacy policy states that Google may not use personal information for any purposes other than the anti-phishing protection feature.[71]
In 2005, the Mozilla Foundation and Mozilla Corporation had a combined revenue of US$52.9 million. Approximately 95 percent of this revenue[76] was related to their search engine relationships.[77]
Response from competition
Despite Firefox's gains on Internet Explorer, Microsoft's head of Australian operations, Steve Vamos, stated in late 2004 that he did not see Firefox as a threat and that there was not significant demand for the feature set of Firefox among Microsoft's users.[78]
Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates has used Firefox, but he has commented "so much software gets downloaded all the time, but do people actually use it?"[79] A Microsoft SEC filing on June 30, 2005 acknowledged that "competitors such as Mozilla offer software that competes with the Internet Explorer Web browsing capabilities of our Windows operating system products."[80]
Despite the cold reception from Microsoft's top management, the Internet Explorer development team does have a healthy relationship with Mozilla. They meet regularly to discuss web standards such as validation certificates.[81] In 2005 Mozilla agreed to allow Microsoft to use its RSS logo in the interest of common graphical representation of the RSS feature.[82]
In August 2006, Microsoft offered to help Mozilla integrate Firefox with the then-forthcoming Windows Vista,[83] which Mozilla accepted.[84]
In October 2006, as congratulations for a successful ship of Firefox 2, the Internet Explorer 7 development team sent a cake to Mozilla.[85][86]
Future development
This article or section contains information about scheduled or expected future software.
The content may change dramatically as the software release approaches and more information becomes available.
According to the Firefox roadmap, future development will include version 3.0. Development on version 3.0, which will be based on Gecko 1.9, occurs simultaneously on the Mozilla trunk. Newer versions of Firefox will use the Cairo graphics library as the rendering layer instead of the platform's native rendering engine.[87]
Version 3.0
The logo of Minefield development trunk builds
Gran Paradiso version 3.0a8pre running on Mac OS X.The development name for Mozilla Firefox 3 is Gran Paradiso.[88] The precursory releases were codenamed "Minefield", as this was the name of the trunk builds. "Gran Paradiso" (trans. "Great Paradise"), like other Firefox development names, is an actual place; in this case the highest mountain group in the Graian Alps. With the release of version 3.0 alpha 1 on December 8, 2006, it adopted the "Gran Paradiso" codename.[89][90][91][92][93][94] A post on the Mozilla Wiki "Release Roadmap" from President of Products Christopher Beard suggests a release in November 2007.[95] A broken down release plan can be seen here. [96]
The largest change for Firefox 3 is the implementation of Gecko 1.9, an updated layout engine which uses Cairo as a graphics backend, allowing for improved graphics performance and better consistency of look and feel on various operating systems. Because of Cairo's lack of support for Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows NT 4.0, and because Microsoft decided to end support for Windows 98 and Windows Me on July 11, 2006, Firefox 3 will not run on those operating systems. Similarly, the Mac version of Firefox 3 will only run on Mac OS X 10.4 or higher,[97][98][99] but, unlike previous versions, will have a native Cocoa widget interface.[100]
Firefox 3 will also include native support for microformats,[101] as well as various features that were bumped from Firefox 2, such as the overhauled Places system for storing bookmarks and history in an SQLite backend.[102]
There is also advanced ongoing work focused on further implementation of features from Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group or WHATWG specification.[103][104] In particular, support for the controversial[105][106] "ping"[107] attribute in and HTML elements is implemented and enabled by default.[108] The only purpose of this additional attribute is tracking clicking on links.[107][108] LWN.net notes that "ping" has advantages over current click-tracking techniques because it can more reliably get the user to their intended destination and the user has the option of turning the "ping" feature off.[109] The development team was asking users to submit feature requests that they wish to be included in Firefox 3.[110]
Version 4.0
On October 13, 2006, Brendan Eich, Mozilla's Chief Technology Officer, wrote about the plans for Mozilla 2.0, the platform on which Firefox 4.0 is likely to be based. These changes include improving and removing XPCOM APIs, switching to standard C++ features, just-in-time compilation with JavaScript 2 (known as the Tamarin project), and tool-time and runtime security checks.[111][112]
Discontinued versions
The following are the end of life dates for various versions of Firefox.
Firefox 1.0 reached its end of life in an announcement on April 12, 2006[113] with the release of version 1.0.8.
Firefox 1.5 was scheduled to reach its end of life on April 24, 2007, but on that day, an announcement was made pushing the date back a couple of weeks to mid-May 2007 in order to allow for a 1.5.0.12 release.[114]
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mozilla Firefox 2 running on Ubuntu, displaying the English Wikipedia main page
Maintainer: Mozilla Corporation / Mozilla Foundation
Stable release: 2.0.0.6 (July 30, 2007) [+/-]
Preview release: 3.0a7 (July 31, 2007) [+/-]
OS: Cross-platform
Available language(s): Multilingual,[1] EULA in English only[2]
Use: Web browser
License: Mozilla EULA for binary redistribution
Website: http://www.mozilla.com/firefox/
Firefox (category)
Mozilla
Foundation • Corporation
Community / Customization
Features • Extensions (category)
Spread Firefox • Adoption • Firemonger
Forks and Related Projects
Flock • GNU IceWeasel
Portable Edition • Netscape 9
Swiftfox • Swiftweasel
XeroBank
Origins and Lineage
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Mozilla Firefox is a graphical web browser developed by the Mozilla Corporation, and a large community of external contributors. Firefox, officially abbreviated as Fx or fx[3] and popularly abbreviated FF,[4] started as a fork of the Navigator browser component of the Mozilla Application Suite. Firefox has replaced the Mozilla Suite as the flagship product of the Mozilla project, under the direction of the Mozilla Foundation.
Mozilla Firefox is a cross-platform browser, providing support for various versions of Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. However, the source code has been unofficially ported to other operating systems, including FreeBSD,[5] OS/2, Solaris, RISC OS,[6] SkyOS, BeOS and more recently, Windows XP Professional x64 Edition.[7]
Firefox's source code is available under the terms of the Mozilla tri-license as free and open source software. The current stable release of Firefox is version 2.0.0.6, released on July 30, 2007.[8]
According to Market Share by Net Applications, 14.55% of the world's Web browsers used Firefox in June 2007, with 13.92% using version 1.5 or higher. [9]
History
Main article: History of Mozilla Firefox
Dave Hyatt and Blake Ross began working on the Firefox project as an experimental branch of the Mozilla project. They believed the commercial requirements of Netscape's sponsorship and developer-driven feature creep compromised the utility of the Mozilla browser.[10] To combat what they saw as the Mozilla Suite's software bloat, they created a pared-down browser, with which they intended to replace the Mozilla Suite. On April 3, 2003, the Mozilla Organization announced that they planned to change their focus from the Mozilla Suite to Firefox and Thunderbird.[11]
The Firefox project has undergone several name changes. Originally titled Phoenix, it was renamed because of trademark issues with Phoenix Technologies. The replacement name, Firebird, provoked an intense response from the Firebird free database software project.[12][13][14] In response, the Mozilla Foundation stated that the browser should always bear the name Mozilla Firebird to avoid confusion with the database software. Continuing pressure from the database server's development community forced another change; on February 9, 2004, Mozilla Firebird became Mozilla Firefox (Firefox for short).[15]
The Firefox project went through many versions before 1.0 was released on November 9, 2004. In addition to stability and security fixes, the Mozilla Foundation released its first major update to Firefox version 1.5 on November 29, 2005. On October 24, 2006, Mozilla released Firefox 2. This version includes updates to the tabbed browsing environment, the extensions manager, the GUI, and the find, search and software update engines; a new session restore feature; inline spell checking; and an anti-phishing feature which was implemented by Google as an extension[16][17] and later merged into the program itself.[18]
Features
Main article: Features of Mozilla Firefox
Features included with Firefox are tabbed browsing, spell checker, incremental find (via the Find toolbar), Live bookmarking, an integrated download manager, and a search system that includes Google. The user can customize Firefox with downloadable extensions, themes, and advanced preferences not present in the Options dialog that are accessible via the about:config page.[19] The developers of Firefox aimed to produce a browser that "just surfs the web"[20] and delivers the "best possible browsing experience to the widest possible set of people."[21] Firefox provides an environment for web developers in which they can use built-in tools or extensions. These include the built-in JavaScript Console and the DOM Inspector. One of the most popular features of Firefox is its support for add-ons. These include Themes for the browser, but also extensions like Source Editor, Grease Monkey, and IE Tab which make special tasks easier, and improve browsing experience.
Standards support
Firefox market share
by version
July, 2007[22]
Firefox Betas 0.02 %
Firefox 1.0 0.53 %
Firefox 1.5 1.43 %
Firefox 2 12.38 %
Total 14.36 %
Mozilla Firefox supports many software standards, including HTML, XML, XHTML, CSS, ECMAScript (JavaScript), DOM, MathML, DTD, XSLT, XPath, and PNG images with alpha transparency.[23] In addition Firefox supports the SVG standard, however what exists in the current stable version should only be treated as a "technology preview", as it is not a full implementation.[24] Firefox also supports standards proposals created by the WHATWG such as the offline storage[25][26] and canvas element.[27] Although Firefox 2 does not pass the Acid2 standards-compliance test, development builds of Firefox 3 do.[28]
Security
Firefox uses SSL/TLS to protect communications with web servers using strong cryptography when using the HTTPS protocol.[29] It uses a sandbox security model[30] and the developers use a "bug bounty" scheme, for finding fixes for some security[31] and feature additions. Official guidelines for handling security vulnerabilities discourage early disclosure of vulnerabilities so as not to give potential attackers an advantage in creating exploits.[32]
Because Firefox has fewer and less severe publicly known unpatched security vulnerabilities than Internet Explorer (see Comparison of web browsers), improved security is often cited as a reason to switch from Internet Explorer to Firefox.[33][34][35][36] The Washington Post reports that exploit code for critical unpatched security vulnerabilities in Internet Explorer was available for 284 days in 2006. In comparison, exploit code for critical security vulnerabilities in Firefox was available for 9 days before Mozilla shipped a patch to remedy the problem.[37]
A 2006 Symantec study showed that Firefox had surpassed other browsers in the number of vendor-confirmed vulnerabilities that year through September; these vulnerabilities were patched far more quickly than those found in other browsers.[38] Symantec later clarified their statement, saying that Firefox still had fewer security vulnerabilities, as counted by security researchers.[39] As of July 9, 2007, Firefox 2 has 10 security vulnerabilities unpatched, the most severe of which was rated "less critical" by Secunia.[40] Internet Explorer has seven security vulnerabilities unpatched, the most severe of which was rated "moderately critical" by Secunia.[41] (Note that the number of "Secunia Advisories" listed for each does not reflect the actual number of vulnerabilities reported for each. Advisory SA23282 for Mozilla Firefox 2.0.x contains multiple vulnerabilities.)
Licensing
Firefox is free and open source software, and is tri-licensed under the Mozilla Public License (MPL), GNU General Public License (GPL), and the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL). These licenses permit anyone to view, modify and/or redistribute the source code, and several publicly released applications have been built on it; for example, Netscape, Flock and Songbird make use of code from Firefox.
The official end-user builds of Firefox distributed from mozilla.com are licensed under the Mozilla EULA.[2] Several elements do not fall under the scope of the tri-license and have their use restricted by the EULA, including the trademarked Firefox name and artwork, and the proprietary Talkback crash reporter. Because of this and the clickwrap agreement included in the Windows version, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) consider these builds proprietary software.[42]
In the past, Firefox was licensed solely under the MPL,[43] which the FSF criticizes for being weak copyleft; the license permits, in limited ways, proprietary derivative works. Additionally, code under the MPL cannot legally be linked with code under the GPL or the LGPL.[44][45] To address these concerns, Mozilla re-licensed Firefox under the tri-license scheme of MPL, GPL, and LGPL. Since the re-licensing, developers have been free to choose the license under which they will receive the code, to suit their intended use: GPL or LGPL linking and derivative works when one of those licenses is chosen, or MPL use (including the possibility of proprietary derivative works) if they choose the MPL.[43]
Trademark and logo issues
The generic globe logo used when Firefox is compiled without the official brandingThe name "Mozilla Firefox" is a registered trademark; along with the official Firefox logo, it may only be used under certain terms and conditions. Anyone may redistribute the official binaries in unmodified form and use the Firefox name and branding for such distribution, but restrictions are placed on distributions which modify the underlying source code.[46]
To allow distributions of the code without using the official branding, the Firefox source code contains a "branding switch". This switch allows the code to be compiled without the official logo and name, for example to produce a derivative work unencumbered by restrictions on the Firefox trademark (this is also often used for betas and alphas of future Firefox versions). In the unbranded compilation the trademarked logo and name are replaced with a freely distributable generic globe logo and the name of the release series from which the modified version was derived. The name "Deer Park" is used for derivatives of Firefox 1.5, "Bon Echo" for derivatives of Firefox 2.0, and "Gran Paradiso" is used for derivatives of Firefox 3.0.[citation needed]
Outside of certain exceptions made for "community editions", distributing modified versions of Firefox under the "Firefox" name requires explicit approval from Mozilla for the changes made to the underlying code, and requires the use of all of the official branding. For example, it is not permissible to use the name "Firefox" without also using the official logo. When the Debian project decided to stop using the official Firefox logo in 2006 (because of restrictions on its use incompatible with the project's guidelines), they were told by a representative of the Mozilla Foundation that this was not acceptable, and were asked to either comply with the published trademark guidelines or cease using the "Firefox" name in their distribution.[47] Ultimately, Debian switched to branding their modified version of Firefox "Iceweasel".
Advertising
The rapid adoption of Firefox, 100 million downloads in its first year of availability,[48] followed a series of aggressive marketing campaigns starting in 2004 with a series of events Blake Ross and Asa Dotzler called "marketing weeks".[49]
On September 12, 2004,[50] a marketing portal dubbed "Spread Firefox" (SFX) debuted along with the Firefox Preview Release, creating a centralized space for the discussion of various marketing techniques. The portal enhanced the "Get Firefox" button program, giving users "referrer points" as an incentive. The site lists the top 250 referrers. From time to time, the SFX team or SFX members launch marketing events organized at the Spread Firefox website.
The "World Firefox Day" campaign started on July 15, 2006[51] - the anniversary of the founding of the Mozilla Foundation - and ran until September 15, 2006. Participants registered themselves and a friend on the website for nomination to have their names displayed on the Firefox Friends Wall, a digital wall that will be displayed at the headquarters of the Mozilla Foundation.
Market adoption
Main article: Market adoption of Mozilla Firefox
See also: Usage share of web browsers
Usage share of Mozilla Firefox over timeMozilla Firefox's marketshare has grown for each growth period since inception, mostly at the expense of Internet Explorer. Internet Explorer has seen a steady decline of its usage share since Firefox's release. According to Dutch web analytics firm OneStat, by July 2006, Firefox was the second-most widely used browser, with 12.93% of global usage share.[52] By March 2007, according to data made available by U.S. firm NetApplications, Firefox's market share had grown to 15.1% globally.[53]
Downloads have continued at an increasing rate since Firefox 1.0 was released in November 2004, and as of February 12, 2007 Firefox has been downloaded over 300 million times. This number does not include downloads using software updates or from third-party websites.[54] They do not represent a user count, as one download may be installed on many machines, or one person may download the software multiple times. According to Mozilla CEO Mitchell Baker, Firefox had 75 to 100 million users as of May 2007.[55]
Critical reception
Forbes.com called Firefox the best browser in a 2004 commentary piece.[56] PC World named Firefox the "product of the year" in 2005 on their "100 Best Products of 2005" list.[57] After the release of Firefox 2 and Internet Explorer 7 in 2006, PC World reviewed both and declared that Firefox was the better browser.[58] Which? Magazine named Firefox its Best Buy web browser.[59]
Internet Week ran an article in which many readers reported high memory usage in Firefox 1.5.[60] Mozilla developers said the higher memory use of Firefox 1.5 is at least partially an effect of the new fast backwards-and-forwards (FastBack) feature.[61] Other known causes of memory problems are malfunctioning extensions, such as Google Toolbar and some old versions of Adblock,[62] or plug-ins, such as older versions of Adobe Acrobat Reader.[63] When PC Magazine compared memory usage of Firefox, Opera and Internet Explorer, they found that Firefox seemed to use only about as much memory as the other browsers.[64] Tests performed by PC World and Zimbra indicate that Firefox 2 uses less memory than Internet Explorer 7.[58][65]
Softpedia notes that Firefox takes longer to start up than other browsers,[66] which was confirmed by browser speed tests. IE 6 also launches slightly faster than Firefox on Microsoft Windows since many of its components are built into Windows and are loaded during system startup. As a workaround for the issue, a preloader application was created that loads components of Firefox on startup, similar to Internet Explorer.[67]
Relationship with Google
The Mozilla Corporation's relationship with Google[68][69] has been noted in the media, especially with regards to use of Firefox to provide revenues and data for Google. The release of the anti-phishing protection in Firefox 2 especially raised controversy.[70] Enabled by default, anti-phishing protection is based on a list that is updated about twice per hour and downloaded to the user's computer[71] from Google's server. The user cannot change the data provider within the GUI,[72] and is not informed who the default data provider is. The browser also sends Google's cookie with each request for update.[73] The "advanced" security feature of builds by the Mozilla Foundation activate an anti-phishing feature to provide live protection and, according to the Mozilla Wiki,[74] send each visited URL to Google.[75] The user must explicitly opt-in for this service, however. There are Internet privacy concerns surrounding how Google may use the data, even though Firefox's privacy policy states that Google may not use personal information for any purposes other than the anti-phishing protection feature.[71]
In 2005, the Mozilla Foundation and Mozilla Corporation had a combined revenue of US$52.9 million. Approximately 95 percent of this revenue[76] was related to their search engine relationships.[77]
Response from competition
Despite Firefox's gains on Internet Explorer, Microsoft's head of Australian operations, Steve Vamos, stated in late 2004 that he did not see Firefox as a threat and that there was not significant demand for the feature set of Firefox among Microsoft's users.[78]
Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates has used Firefox, but he has commented "so much software gets downloaded all the time, but do people actually use it?"[79] A Microsoft SEC filing on June 30, 2005 acknowledged that "competitors such as Mozilla offer software that competes with the Internet Explorer Web browsing capabilities of our Windows operating system products."[80]
Despite the cold reception from Microsoft's top management, the Internet Explorer development team does have a healthy relationship with Mozilla. They meet regularly to discuss web standards such as validation certificates.[81] In 2005 Mozilla agreed to allow Microsoft to use its RSS logo in the interest of common graphical representation of the RSS feature.[82]
In August 2006, Microsoft offered to help Mozilla integrate Firefox with the then-forthcoming Windows Vista,[83] which Mozilla accepted.[84]
In October 2006, as congratulations for a successful ship of Firefox 2, the Internet Explorer 7 development team sent a cake to Mozilla.[85][86]
Future development
This article or section contains information about scheduled or expected future software.
The content may change dramatically as the software release approaches and more information becomes available.
According to the Firefox roadmap, future development will include version 3.0. Development on version 3.0, which will be based on Gecko 1.9, occurs simultaneously on the Mozilla trunk. Newer versions of Firefox will use the Cairo graphics library as the rendering layer instead of the platform's native rendering engine.[87]
Version 3.0
The logo of Minefield development trunk builds
Gran Paradiso version 3.0a8pre running on Mac OS X.The development name for Mozilla Firefox 3 is Gran Paradiso.[88] The precursory releases were codenamed "Minefield", as this was the name of the trunk builds. "Gran Paradiso" (trans. "Great Paradise"), like other Firefox development names, is an actual place; in this case the highest mountain group in the Graian Alps. With the release of version 3.0 alpha 1 on December 8, 2006, it adopted the "Gran Paradiso" codename.[89][90][91][92][93][94] A post on the Mozilla Wiki "Release Roadmap" from President of Products Christopher Beard suggests a release in November 2007.[95] A broken down release plan can be seen here. [96]
The largest change for Firefox 3 is the implementation of Gecko 1.9, an updated layout engine which uses Cairo as a graphics backend, allowing for improved graphics performance and better consistency of look and feel on various operating systems. Because of Cairo's lack of support for Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows NT 4.0, and because Microsoft decided to end support for Windows 98 and Windows Me on July 11, 2006, Firefox 3 will not run on those operating systems. Similarly, the Mac version of Firefox 3 will only run on Mac OS X 10.4 or higher,[97][98][99] but, unlike previous versions, will have a native Cocoa widget interface.[100]
Firefox 3 will also include native support for microformats,[101] as well as various features that were bumped from Firefox 2, such as the overhauled Places system for storing bookmarks and history in an SQLite backend.[102]
There is also advanced ongoing work focused on further implementation of features from Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group or WHATWG specification.[103][104] In particular, support for the controversial[105][106] "ping"[107] attribute in and HTML elements is implemented and enabled by default.[108] The only purpose of this additional attribute is tracking clicking on links.[107][108] LWN.net notes that "ping" has advantages over current click-tracking techniques because it can more reliably get the user to their intended destination and the user has the option of turning the "ping" feature off.[109] The development team was asking users to submit feature requests that they wish to be included in Firefox 3.[110]
Version 4.0
On October 13, 2006, Brendan Eich, Mozilla's Chief Technology Officer, wrote about the plans for Mozilla 2.0, the platform on which Firefox 4.0 is likely to be based. These changes include improving and removing XPCOM APIs, switching to standard C++ features, just-in-time compilation with JavaScript 2 (known as the Tamarin project), and tool-time and runtime security checks.[111][112]
Discontinued versions
The following are the end of life dates for various versions of Firefox.
Firefox 1.0 reached its end of life in an announcement on April 12, 2006[113] with the release of version 1.0.8.
Firefox 1.5 was scheduled to reach its end of life on April 24, 2007, but on that day, an announcement was made pushing the date back a couple of weeks to mid-May 2007 in order to allow for a 1.5.0.12 release.[114]
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^ Eich, Brendan (2006-11-07). Project Tamarin. Retrieved on 2006-11-14.
^ Beard, Christopher (April 12, 2006). Sunset Announcement for Fx/Tb 1.0.x and Mozilla Suite 1.7.x. Mozilla Developer Center. Retrieved on 2007-08-01.
^ Support for Mozilla Firefox 1.5 Extended Until Mid-May. mozillaZine (April 24, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-01.
iGoogle
iGoogle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A screenshot of iGoogle with default gadgets
Developer: Google
Platform: Web browsers
Genre: Web Gadgets
Website: http://igoogle.com/
iGoogle (formerly Google Personalized Homepage) is a customizable homepage originally launched in May 2005. Updates include the capability to add web feeds and Google Gadgets (similar to those available on Google Desktop).
It was renamed and expanded on April 30, 2007 and is currently available in several localized versions of Google: U.S., Australia, India, Canada, the U.K., Switzerland, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Mexico, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, the Netherlands, Russia, Denmark, Ireland and Brazil.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Features
1.1 Gadgets
1.2 Tabbed pages
1.3 Themes
2 Compatibility
3 References
4 External Links
Features
Gadgets
iGoogle supports the use of specially developed "gadgets" to display content on a users page. The gadgets interact with the user and utilise the Google Gadgets API. Some gadgets developed for Google Desktop can also be used within iGoogle. The Google Gadgets API is public and allows anyone to develop a gadget for any need.
Google also allows all users to create a special gadget that does not require the use of the Gadgets API. The gadgets are designed to be shared with friends and family. The special gadgets must be created using an online wizard and must be of one of the following types:
"Framed Photo" is a gadget type that can display a series of photos,
"GoogleGram" is a gadget type that allows the creation of special daily messages,
"Daily Me" is a gadget type that allows the user to express your current mood and feelings to others,
"Free Form" is a simple gadget type that allows the user to input text and an image of their choice,
"YouTube Channel" allows the user to pull videos directory from a YouTube channel,
"Personal List" allows the user to create a list of items,
"Countdown" allows the user to create a countdown to a specific time.
Tabbed pages
iGoogle allows the user to create an unlimited number of tabs, allowing users to split their gadgets up, thus only showing certain gadgets at a certain time.
Themes
iGoogle with beach theme.With iGoogle, users can select unique themes for one's Google homepage. Some of the themes are animated depending on weather conditions, system time, and so on.
Compatibility
Most common Web browsers are able to view iGoogle. Its interface makes use of the JavaScript client-side scripting language, so users who run browsers without Javascript support will not be able to use iGoogle.
References
^ Google Web Search Help Center. Retrieved on 2007-06-17.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A screenshot of iGoogle with default gadgets
Developer: Google
Platform: Web browsers
Genre: Web Gadgets
Website: http://igoogle.com/
iGoogle (formerly Google Personalized Homepage) is a customizable homepage originally launched in May 2005. Updates include the capability to add web feeds and Google Gadgets (similar to those available on Google Desktop).
It was renamed and expanded on April 30, 2007 and is currently available in several localized versions of Google: U.S., Australia, India, Canada, the U.K., Switzerland, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Mexico, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, the Netherlands, Russia, Denmark, Ireland and Brazil.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Features
1.1 Gadgets
1.2 Tabbed pages
1.3 Themes
2 Compatibility
3 References
4 External Links
Features
Gadgets
iGoogle supports the use of specially developed "gadgets" to display content on a users page. The gadgets interact with the user and utilise the Google Gadgets API. Some gadgets developed for Google Desktop can also be used within iGoogle. The Google Gadgets API is public and allows anyone to develop a gadget for any need.
Google also allows all users to create a special gadget that does not require the use of the Gadgets API. The gadgets are designed to be shared with friends and family. The special gadgets must be created using an online wizard and must be of one of the following types:
"Framed Photo" is a gadget type that can display a series of photos,
"GoogleGram" is a gadget type that allows the creation of special daily messages,
"Daily Me" is a gadget type that allows the user to express your current mood and feelings to others,
"Free Form" is a simple gadget type that allows the user to input text and an image of their choice,
"YouTube Channel" allows the user to pull videos directory from a YouTube channel,
"Personal List" allows the user to create a list of items,
"Countdown" allows the user to create a countdown to a specific time.
Tabbed pages
iGoogle allows the user to create an unlimited number of tabs, allowing users to split their gadgets up, thus only showing certain gadgets at a certain time.
Themes
iGoogle with beach theme.With iGoogle, users can select unique themes for one's Google homepage. Some of the themes are animated depending on weather conditions, system time, and so on.
Compatibility
Most common Web browsers are able to view iGoogle. Its interface makes use of the JavaScript client-side scripting language, so users who run browsers without Javascript support will not be able to use iGoogle.
References
^ Google Web Search Help Center. Retrieved on 2007-06-17.
Google
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Type Public (NASDAQ: GOOG), (LSE: GGEA)
Founded Menlo Park, California (September 7, 1998[1])
Headquarters Mountain View, California, USA
Key people Eric E. Schmidt, CEO/Director
Sergey Brin, Co-Founder, Technology President
Larry E. Page, Co-Founder, Products President
George Reyes, CFO
Industry Internet, Computer software
Products See list of Google products
Revenue 10.604 Billion USD (2006)[2]
Net income 3.077 Billion USD (2006)[2]
Employees 13,748 (June 30, 2007)
Website www.google.com
Google Inc. (NASDAQ: GOOG and LSE: GGEA) is an American public corporation, specializing in Internet search and online advertising. The company is based in Mountain View, California, and has 13,748 full-time employees (as of June 30, 2007).[3] Google's mission statement is, "to organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful."[4] Google's corporate philosophy includes statements such as "Don't be evil", and "Work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun", illustrating a somewhat relaxed corporate culture.
Google was co-founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were students at Stanford University and the company was first incorporated as a privately held company on September 7, 1998. Google's initial public offering took place on August 19, 2004, raising $1.67 billion, making it worth $23 billion. Through a series of new product developments, acquisitions and partnerships, the company has expanded its initial search and advertising business into other areas, including web-based email, online mapping, office productivity, and video sharing, among others.
History
Google in 1998Main article: History of Google
Google began as a research project in January 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two Ph.D. students at Stanford University, California.[5] They hypothesized that a search engine that analyzed the relationships between websites would produce better results than existing techniques, which ranked results according to the number of times the search term appeared on a page.[6] Their search engine was originally nicknamed, "BackRub" because the system checked backlinks to estimate a site's importance.[7] A small search engine called Rankdex was already exploring a similar strategy.[8] Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant web pages must be the most relevant pages associated with the search, Page and Brin tested their thesis as part of their studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine. Originally the search engine used the Stanford University website with the domain google.stanford.edu. The domain google.com was registered on September 15, 1997,[9] and the company was incorporated as Google Inc. on September 7, 1998 at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. The total initial investment raised for the new company eventually amounted to almost $1.1 million, including a $100,000 check by Andy Bechtolsheim, one of the founders of Sun Microsystems.[10]
In March 1998, the company moved into offices in Palo Alto, home to several other noted Silicon Valley technology startups.[11] After quickly outgrowing two other sites, the company leased a complex of buildings in Mountain View at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway from Silicon Graphics (SGI) in 2003.[12] The company has remained at this location ever since, and the complex has since become known as the Googleplex (a play on the word googolplex, a 1 followed by a googol zeros). In 2006, Google bought the property from SGI for $319 million.[13]
The Google search engine attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design.[14] In 2000, Google began selling advertisements associated with search keywords.[5] The ads were text-based to maintain an uncluttered page design and to maximize page loading speed.[5] Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bid and clickthroughs, with bidding starting at $.05 per click.[5] This model of selling keyword advertising was pioneered by Goto.com (later renamed Overture Services, before being acquired by Yahoo! and rebranded as Yahoo! Search Marketing).[15][16][17] While many of its dot-com rivals failed in the new Internet marketplace, Google quietly rose in stature while generating revenue.[5]
The name "Google" originated from a misspelling of "googol,"[18][19] which refers to 10100 (the number represented by a 1 followed by one-hundred zeros). Having found its way increasingly into everyday language, the verb, "google", was added to the Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary in 2006, meaning, "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the Internet."[20][21]
A patent describing part of Google's ranking mechanism (PageRank) was granted on September 4, 2001.[22] The patent was officially assigned to Stanford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor.
Financing and initial public offering
The first funding for Google as a company was secured in the form of a USD100,000 contribution from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given to a corporation which did not yet exist.[23] Around six months later, a much larger round of funding was announced, with the major investors being rival venture capital firms Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers and Sequoia Capital.[23]
Google's initial public offering took place on August 19, 2004. 19,605,052 shares were offered at a price of $85 per share.[24] Of that, 14,142,135 (another mathematical reference as √2 ≈ 1.4142135) were floated by Google and 5,462,917 by selling stockholders. The sale raised $1.67 billion, and gave Google a market capitalization of more than $23 billion.[25] The vast majority of Google's 271 million shares remained under Google's control. Many of Google's employees became instant paper millionaires. Yahoo!, a competitor of Google, also benefited from the IPO because it owned 8.4 million shares of Google as of August 9, 2004, ten days before the IPO.[26]
Google's post-IPO stock performance has been very good as well, with shares surging to $500 by 2007, due to strong sales and earnings in the advertising market, as well as the release of new features like the desktop search function and personalized home page.[27] The surge in stock price is fueled primarily by individual investors, as opposed to large institutional investors and mutual funds.[27]
The company is listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker symbol GOOG.
Growth
While the company's primary market is in the web content arena, Google has begun to experiment with other markets, such as radio and print publications. On January 17, 2006, Google announced that it had purchased the radio advertising company dMarc, which provides an automated system that allows companies to advertise on the radio.[28] This will allow Google to combine two niche advertising media—the Internet and radio—with Google's ability to laser-focus on the tastes of consumers. Google has also begun an experiment in selling advertisements from its advertisers in offline newspapers and magazines, with select advertisements in the Chicago Sun-Times.[29] They have been filling unsold space in the newspaper that would have normally been used for in-house advertisements.
Google was added to the S&P 500 index on March 30, 2006. Google replaced Burlington Resources, a major oil producer based in Houston which was acquired by ConocoPhillips.
Acquisitions
See also: List of Google acquisitions
Since 2001, Google has acquired several small start-up companies, often consisting of innovative teams and products. One of the earlier companies that Google bought was Pyra Labs. They were the creators of Blogger, a weblog publishing platform, first launched in 1999. This acquisition led to many premium features becoming free. Pyra Labs was originally formed by Evan Williams, yet he left Google in 2004. In early 2006, Google acquired Upstartle, a company responsible for the online word processor, Writely. The technology in this product was used by Google to eventually create Google Docs & Spreadsheets.
In February 2006, software company Adaptive Path sold Measure Map, a weblog statistics application, to Google. Registration to the service has since been temporarily disabled.
In late 2006, Google bought online video site YouTube for $1.65 billion in stock.[30] Shortly after, on October 31, 2006, Google announced that it had also acquired JotSpot, a developer of wiki technology for collaborative Web sites.[31]
On April 13, 2007, Google reached an agreement to acquire DoubleClick. Google agreed to buy the company for $3.1 billion.[32]
On July 9, 2007, Google announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire enterprise messaging security and compliance company Postini.[33]
Partnerships
In 2005, Google entered into partnerships with other companies and government agencies to improve production and services. Google announced a partnership with NASA Ames Research Center to build up 1 million square feet of offices and work on research projects involving large-scale data management, nanotechnology, distributed computing, and the entrepreneurial space industry.[34] Google also entered into a partnership with Sun Microsystems in October to help share and distribute each other's technologies.[35] The company entered into a partnership with Time Warner's AOL,[36] to enhance each other's video search services.
In 2006, Google and News Corp.'s Fox Interactive Media entered into a $900 million agreement to provide search and advertising on the popular social networking site, MySpace.[37]
Products
Main article: List of Google products
Google has created services and tools for the general public and business environment alike; including Web applications, advertising networks and solutions for businesses.
Advertising
Most of Google's revenue is derived from advertising programs. For the 2006 fiscal year, the company reported $10.492 billion in total advertising revenues and only $112 million in licensing and other revenues.[38] Google AdWords allows Web advertisers to display advertisements in Google's search results and the Google Content Network, through either a cost-per-click or cost-per-view scheme. Google AdSense website owners can also display adverts on their own site, and earn money every time ads are clicked.
Applications
Google is well-known for its web search service, which is a major factor of the company's success. As of December 2006, Google is the most used search engine on the web with a 50.8% market share, ahead of Yahoo! (23.6%) and Live Search (8.4%).[39] Google indexes billions of Web pages, so that users can search for the information they desire, through the use of keywords and operators. Google has also employed the Web Search technology into other search services, including Image Search, Google News, the price comparison site Google Product Search, the interactive Usenet archive Google Groups, Google Maps and more.
In 2004, Google launched its own free web-based email service, known as Gmail.[40] Gmail features spam filtering technology and the capability to use Google technology to search email. The service generates revenue by displaying advertisements from the AdWords service that are tailored to the content of the email messages displayed on screen.
In early 2006, the company launched Google Video, which not only allows users to search and view freely available videos, but also offers users and media publishers the ability to publish their content, including television shows on CBS, NBA basketball games, and music videos.[41]
Google has also developed several desktop applications, including Google Earth, an interactive mapping program powered by satellite imagery that covers the vast majority of the earth. Google Earth is generally considered to be remarkably accurate and extremely detailed. For example, some major cities (Las Vegas, NV, USA for example) have such detailed images that one can zoom in close enough to read the license plates on cars on a street. Consequently, there have been some concerns about national security implications. Specifically, some countries and militaries contend the software can be used to pinpoint with near-precision accuracy the physical location of critical infrastructure, commercial and residential buildings, bases, government agencies, and so on. However, the satellite images are not necessarily frequently updated, and all of them are available at no charge through other products and even government sources (NASA and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, for example.) Some counter this argument by stating that Google Earth makes it easier to access and research the images.
Many other products are available through Google Labs, which is a collection of incomplete applications that are still being tested for use by the general public.
Google has promoted their products in various ways. In London, Google Space was set-up in Heathrow Airport, showcasing several products, including Gmail, Google Earth and Picasa.[42][43] Also, a similar page was launched for American college students, under the name College Life, Powered by Google.[44]
In 2007, some reports surfaced that Google was planning the release of its own mobile phone, possibly a competitor to Apple's iPhone.[45][46][47] The project may be a collaboration between Google and Orange, HTC, Samsung, or another manufacturer. However, very little is known about the project and most of the information available is speculation.
Enterprise products
In 2007, Google launched Google Apps Premium Edition, a software suite for businesses that provides e-mail, instant messaging, calendar, word processing, as well as a spreadsheet program.[48] This product is targeted primarily at the business user, and intended to compete directly versus Microsoft's Office suite, with a price of approximately USD50 per user per year compared to USD500 per user for Microsoft Office.[48] A large implementation of Google Apps with 38,000 users is at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada.[49]
Platform
Main article: Google platform
Google's services are run on several server farms, each consisting of thousands of low-cost commodity computers running stripped-down versions of Linux. While the company does not provide detailed information about its hardware, a 2006 estimate consisted of over 450,000 servers, racked up in clusters located in data centers around the world.[50]
Corporate affairs and culture
A license plate seen in the Googleplex parking lot.Google is particularly known for its relaxed corporate culture, reminiscent of the Dot-com boom. In January 2007, it was cited by Fortune Magazine as the #1 (of 100) best company to work for.[51] Google's corporate philosophy is based on many casual principles including, "You can make money without doing evil", "You can be serious without a suit," and "Work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun." A complete list of corporate fundamentals is available on Google's website.[52] Google's relaxed corporate culture can also be seen externally through their holiday variations of the Google logo.
Typical salaries at Google are considered to be quite low by industry standards. [citation needed] For example, some system administrators earn no more than $35,000 per year – considered to be quite low for the Bay Area job market.[53] However, Google's stock performance following its IPO has enabled many early employees to be competitively compensated by participation in the corporation's remarkable equity growth.[54] Google implemented other employee incentives in 2005, such as the Google Founders' Award, in addition to offering higher salaries to new employees. Google's workplace amenities, culture, global popularity, and strong brand recognition have also attracted potential applicants.
After the company's IPO in August 2004, it was reported that founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page, and CEO Eric Schmidt, requested that their base salary be cut to $1.00.[55] Subsequent offers by the company to increase their salaries have been turned down, primarily because, "their primary compensation continues to come from returns on their ownership stakes in Google. As significant stockholders, their personal wealth is tied directly to sustained stock price appreciation and performance, which provides direct alignment with stockholder interests."[55] Prior to 2004, Schmidt was making $250,000 per year, and Page and Brin each earned a salary of $150,000.[55]
They have all declined recent offers of bonuses and increases in compensation by Google's board of directors. In a 2006 report of the United States' richest people, Forbes reported that Sergey Brin was #12 with a net worth of $14.1 billion, and Larry Page was #13 with a net worth of $14.0 billion.[56]
Googleplex
The GoogleplexMain article: Googleplex
As a play on Google's name, its headquarters, in Mountain View, California, is referred to as "the Googleplex" — a googolplex being 1 followed by a googol of zeros, and the HQ being a complex of buildings (cf. multiplex, cineplex, etc). The lobby is decorated with a piano, lava lamps, old server clusters, and a projection of search queries on the wall. The hallways are full of exercise balls and bicycles. Each employee has access to the corporate recreation center. Recreational amenities are scattered throughout the campus and include a workout room with weights and rowing machines, locker rooms, washers and dryers, a massage room, assorted video games, Foosball, a baby grand piano, a pool table, and ping pong. In addition to the rec room, there are snack rooms stocked with various cereals, gummy bears, toffee, licorice, cashews, yogurt, carrots, fresh fruit, and dozens of different drinks including fresh juice, soda, and make your own cappuccino.
Sign at the GoogleplexIn 2006, Google moved into 311,000 square feet of office space in New York City, at 111 Eighth Ave. in Manhattan.[57] The office was specially designed and built for Google and houses its largest advertising sales team, which has been instrumental in securing large partnerships, most recently deals with MySpace and AOL.[57] In 2003, they added an engineering staff in New York City, which has been responsible for more than 100 engineering projects, including Google Maps, Google Spreadsheets, and others.[57] It is estimated that the building costs Google $10 million per year to rent and is similar in design and functionality to its Mountain View headquarters, including Foosball, air hockey, and ping-pong tables, as well as a video game area.[57]
Google is also making steps to ensure that their operations are environmentally sound. In October 2006, the company announced plans to install thousands of solar panels to provide up to 1.6 megawatts of electricity, enough to satisfy approximately 30% of the campus' energy needs.[58] The system will be the largest solar power system constructed on a U.S. corporate campus and one of the largest on any corporate site in the world.[58] In June 2007, Google announced that they plan to become carbon neutral by 2008, which includes investing in energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, and purchasing carbon offsets, such as investing in projects like capturing and burning methane from animal waste at Mexican and Brazilian farms.[59]
"Twenty percent" time
All Google engineers are encouraged to spend 20% of their work time (one day per week) on projects that interest them. Some of Google's newer services, such as Gmail, Google News, Orkut, and AdSense originated from these independent endeavors.[60] In a talk at Stanford University, Marissa Mayer, Google's vice president of search products and user experience, stated that her analysis showed that half of the new product launches originated from the 20% time.[61]
Easter eggs and April Fool's Day jokes
Main article: Google's hoaxes
Google has a tradition of creating April Fool's Day jokes — such as Google MentalPlex, which allegedly featured the use of mental power to search the web.[62] In 2002, they claimed that pigeons were the secret behind their growing search engine.[63] In 2004, they featured Google Lunar (which claimed to feature jobs on the moon),[64] and in 2005, a fictitious brain-boosting drink, termed Google Gulp was announced.[65] In 2006, they came up with Google Romance, a hypothetical online dating service.[66] In 2007, Google announced two joke products. The first was a free wireless Internet service called TiSP (Toilet Internet Service Provider) [67] in which one obtained a connection by flushing one end of a fiber-optic cable down their toilet and waiting only an hour for a "Plumbing Hardware Dispatcher (PHD)" to connect it to the Internet.[67] Additionally, Google's Gmail page displayed an announcement for Gmail Paper, which allows users of their free email service to have email messages printed and shipped to a snail mail address.[68]
Some thought the announcement of Gmail in 2004 around April Fool's Day (as well as the doubling of Gmail's storage space to two gigabytes in 2005) was a joke, although both of these turned out to be genuine announcements. In 2005, a comedic graph depicting Google's goal of "infinity plus one" GB of storage was featured on the Gmail homepage.
Google's services contain a number of Easter eggs; for instance, the Language Tools page offers the search interface in the Swedish Chef's "Bork bork bork," Pig Latin, ”Hacker” (Actually leetspeak), Elmer Fudd, and Klingon.[69] When asked how to get from a location in the U.S. to a location in Europe (or vice versa), Google Maps will provide directions that include an instruction to "Swim across the Atlantic Ocean." [70] In addition, the search engine calculator provides The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything from Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.[71] As Google's search box can be used as a unit converter (as well as a calculator), some non-standard units are built in, such as the Smoot. Google also routinely modifies its logo in accordance with various holidays or special events throughout the year, such as Christmas, Mother's Day, or various birthdays of notable individuals.[72]
IPO and culture
Many people speculated that Google's IPO would inevitably lead to changes in the company's culture,[73] because of shareholder pressure for employee benefit reductions and short-term advances, or because a large number of the company's employees would suddenly become millionaires on paper. In a report given to potential investors, co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page promised that the IPO would not change the company's culture.[74] Later Mr. Page said, "We think a lot about how to maintain our culture and the fun elements. We spent a lot of time getting our offices right. We think it's important to have a high density of people. People are packed together everywhere. We all share offices. We like this set of buildings because it's more like a densely packed university campus than a typical suburban office park."[75]
However, many analysts are finding that as Google grows the company is becoming more "corporate". In 2005, articles in The New York Times and other sources began suggesting that Google had lost its anti-corporate, no evil philosophy[76][77].[78] In an effort to maintain the company's unique culture, Google has designated a Chief Culture Officer in 2006, who also serves as the Director of Human Resources. The purpose of the Chief Culture Officer is to develop and maintain the culture and work on ways to keep true to the core values that the company was founded on in the beginning — a flat organization, a lack of hierarchy, a collaborative environment.[79]
Google.org
In 2004, Google formed its for-profit philanthropic wing Google.org, giving it a starting fund of $1 billion. The express mission of the organization is to help with the issues of climate change (see also global warming), global public health, and global poverty. Among its first projects is to develop a viable plug-in hybrid electric vehicle that can attain 100 mpg.[80] The current director is Dr. Larry Brilliant.[81]
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Google
As it has grown, Google has found itself the focus of several controversies related to its business practices and services. For example, Google Book Search's effort to digitize millions of books and make the full text searchable has led to copyright disputes with the Authors Guild. Google's cooperation with the governments of China, and to a lesser extent France and Germany (regarding Holocaust denial) to filter search results in accordance to regional laws and regulations has led to claims of censorship. Google's persistent cookie and other information collection practices have led to concerns over user privacy. A number of governments in India have raised concerns about the security risks posed by geographic details provided by Google Earth's satellite imaging.[82] Google has also been criticized by advertisers regarding its inability to combat click fraud, when a person or automated script is used to generate a charge on an advertisement without really having an interest in the product. Industry reports in 2006 claim that approximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were in fact fraudulent or invalid.[83]
See also
Googlebot - Google's Web crawler
Googlepedia
Google China - Chinese subsidiary of Google Web search
Google File System - Google's internal distributed file system
Google Foundation - Charitable arm of Google
Google logo
Google Watch
Search engine
Yahoo!
TrustRank
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^ Levingston, Steven. "Google Buys Company To Expand Into Radio." Washington Post. January 18, 2006.
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^ Louise Stort and Miguel Helft. "Google Buys DoubleClick for $3.1 Billion." The New York Times. April 13, 2007. Retrieved on April 13, 2007.
^ Google to acquire Postini. Google (Press release) (July 9, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-07-18.
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^ Kessler, Michelle; Acohido, Byron. "Google, Sun make 'big deal' together." USA Today. October 3, 2005. Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
^ Mills, Elinor. "What the Google-AOL deal means for users." CNET. December 28, 2005. Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
^ Staff Writer. "Fox Interactive Media Enters into Landmark Agreement with Google Inc.; Multi-Year Pact Calls for Google to Provide Search and Advertising across Fox Interactive Media's Growing Online Network Including the MySpace Community." Business Wire. August 7, 2006. Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
^ Form 10-K -- Annual Report. EDGAR. SEC. Retrieved on 2007-07-14.
^ Bausch, Suzy. "Nielsen//NetRatings Announces December U.S. Search Share Rankings[dead link – history]." Market Wire. January 23, 2007. Retrieved on February 23, 2007.
^ Staff Writer. "Google + e-mail = gmail." CNN. August 1, 2004. Retrieved on February 23, 2007.
^ Tyler, Nathan. "Google to Launch Video Marketplace." Google. January 6, 2006. Retrieved on February 23, 2007.
^ "Googlespace Website." Google. Retrieved on February 26, 2007.
^ Donoghue, Andrew. "Google turns Heathrow into testing lab." ZDNet. November 24, 2005. Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
^ "College Life, Powered by Google Website." Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
^ Orlowski, Andrew. "Google Phone - it's for real." The Register. March 16, 2007. Retrieved on April 1, 2007.
^ Smith, David. "The future for Orange could soon be Google in your pocket." The Guardian. December 17, 2006. Retrieved on April 1, 2007.
^ Ricker, Thomas. "The Google Switch: an iPhone killer?." Engadget. January 18, 2007. Retrieved on April 1, 2007.
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^ Rickwood, Lee. "Google Apps: Killer software or killer decision?." PCWorld.ca. March 23, 2007. Retrieved on March 25, 2007.
^ Carr, David F. "How Google Works." Baseline Magazine. July 6, 2006. Retrieved on July 10, 2006.
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^ Shinal, John. "Google IPO achieved its major goal: It's all about raising cash for the company and rewarding employees, early investors." San Francisco Chronicle. August 22, 2004. Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
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^ "Quench your thirst for knowledge." Google. April 1, 2005. Retrieved on February 22, 2007.
^ Fox, Lynn. "Google to Organize World's Courtship Information with Google Romance." Google. April 1, 2006. Retrieved on February 22, 2007.
^ a b "Welcome to Google TiSP." Google. April 1, 2007. Retrieved on April 1, 2007.
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^ "Language Tools." Google. Retrieved on January 24, 2007.
^ "Google Maps." Google. Retrieved on May 2, 2007.
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^ Associated Press. "Quirky Google Culture Endangered?" Wired Magazine. April 28, 2004.
^ Baertlein, Lisa. "Google IPO at $2.7 billion." CIOL IT Unlimited. April 30, 2004.
^ Vise, David A. "Tactics of 'Google Guys' Test IPO Law's Limits." Washington Post. August 17, 2004. Retrieved on February 23, 2007.
^ Rivlin, Gary. "Relax, Bill Gates; It's Google's Turn as the Villain." New York Times. August 24, 2005.
^ Gibson, Owen; Wray, Richard. "Search giant may outgrow its fans." The Sydney Morning Herald. August 25, 2005.
^ Ranka, Mohit. "Google - Don't Be Evil."OSNews. May 17, 2007.
^ Mills, Elinor. "Meet Google's culture czar." ZDNet. April 30, 2007. Retrieved on April 30, 2007.
^ http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/14/technology/14google.html
^ Google Names Larry Brilliant as Executive Director of Google.org
^ Sharma, Dinesh C. "Indian president warns against Google Earth." c net. October 17, 2005. Retrieved on July 23, 2006.
^ Mills, Elinor. "Google to offer advertisers click fraud stats." c net. July 25, 2006. Retrieved on July 29, 2006.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Type Public (NASDAQ: GOOG), (LSE: GGEA)
Founded Menlo Park, California (September 7, 1998[1])
Headquarters Mountain View, California, USA
Key people Eric E. Schmidt, CEO/Director
Sergey Brin, Co-Founder, Technology President
Larry E. Page, Co-Founder, Products President
George Reyes, CFO
Industry Internet, Computer software
Products See list of Google products
Revenue 10.604 Billion USD (2006)[2]
Net income 3.077 Billion USD (2006)[2]
Employees 13,748 (June 30, 2007)
Website www.google.com
Google Inc. (NASDAQ: GOOG and LSE: GGEA) is an American public corporation, specializing in Internet search and online advertising. The company is based in Mountain View, California, and has 13,748 full-time employees (as of June 30, 2007).[3] Google's mission statement is, "to organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful."[4] Google's corporate philosophy includes statements such as "Don't be evil", and "Work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun", illustrating a somewhat relaxed corporate culture.
Google was co-founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were students at Stanford University and the company was first incorporated as a privately held company on September 7, 1998. Google's initial public offering took place on August 19, 2004, raising $1.67 billion, making it worth $23 billion. Through a series of new product developments, acquisitions and partnerships, the company has expanded its initial search and advertising business into other areas, including web-based email, online mapping, office productivity, and video sharing, among others.
History
Google in 1998Main article: History of Google
Google began as a research project in January 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two Ph.D. students at Stanford University, California.[5] They hypothesized that a search engine that analyzed the relationships between websites would produce better results than existing techniques, which ranked results according to the number of times the search term appeared on a page.[6] Their search engine was originally nicknamed, "BackRub" because the system checked backlinks to estimate a site's importance.[7] A small search engine called Rankdex was already exploring a similar strategy.[8] Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant web pages must be the most relevant pages associated with the search, Page and Brin tested their thesis as part of their studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine. Originally the search engine used the Stanford University website with the domain google.stanford.edu. The domain google.com was registered on September 15, 1997,[9] and the company was incorporated as Google Inc. on September 7, 1998 at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. The total initial investment raised for the new company eventually amounted to almost $1.1 million, including a $100,000 check by Andy Bechtolsheim, one of the founders of Sun Microsystems.[10]
In March 1998, the company moved into offices in Palo Alto, home to several other noted Silicon Valley technology startups.[11] After quickly outgrowing two other sites, the company leased a complex of buildings in Mountain View at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway from Silicon Graphics (SGI) in 2003.[12] The company has remained at this location ever since, and the complex has since become known as the Googleplex (a play on the word googolplex, a 1 followed by a googol zeros). In 2006, Google bought the property from SGI for $319 million.[13]
The Google search engine attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design.[14] In 2000, Google began selling advertisements associated with search keywords.[5] The ads were text-based to maintain an uncluttered page design and to maximize page loading speed.[5] Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bid and clickthroughs, with bidding starting at $.05 per click.[5] This model of selling keyword advertising was pioneered by Goto.com (later renamed Overture Services, before being acquired by Yahoo! and rebranded as Yahoo! Search Marketing).[15][16][17] While many of its dot-com rivals failed in the new Internet marketplace, Google quietly rose in stature while generating revenue.[5]
The name "Google" originated from a misspelling of "googol,"[18][19] which refers to 10100 (the number represented by a 1 followed by one-hundred zeros). Having found its way increasingly into everyday language, the verb, "google", was added to the Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary in 2006, meaning, "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the Internet."[20][21]
A patent describing part of Google's ranking mechanism (PageRank) was granted on September 4, 2001.[22] The patent was officially assigned to Stanford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor.
Financing and initial public offering
The first funding for Google as a company was secured in the form of a USD100,000 contribution from Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, given to a corporation which did not yet exist.[23] Around six months later, a much larger round of funding was announced, with the major investors being rival venture capital firms Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers and Sequoia Capital.[23]
Google's initial public offering took place on August 19, 2004. 19,605,052 shares were offered at a price of $85 per share.[24] Of that, 14,142,135 (another mathematical reference as √2 ≈ 1.4142135) were floated by Google and 5,462,917 by selling stockholders. The sale raised $1.67 billion, and gave Google a market capitalization of more than $23 billion.[25] The vast majority of Google's 271 million shares remained under Google's control. Many of Google's employees became instant paper millionaires. Yahoo!, a competitor of Google, also benefited from the IPO because it owned 8.4 million shares of Google as of August 9, 2004, ten days before the IPO.[26]
Google's post-IPO stock performance has been very good as well, with shares surging to $500 by 2007, due to strong sales and earnings in the advertising market, as well as the release of new features like the desktop search function and personalized home page.[27] The surge in stock price is fueled primarily by individual investors, as opposed to large institutional investors and mutual funds.[27]
The company is listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker symbol GOOG.
Growth
While the company's primary market is in the web content arena, Google has begun to experiment with other markets, such as radio and print publications. On January 17, 2006, Google announced that it had purchased the radio advertising company dMarc, which provides an automated system that allows companies to advertise on the radio.[28] This will allow Google to combine two niche advertising media—the Internet and radio—with Google's ability to laser-focus on the tastes of consumers. Google has also begun an experiment in selling advertisements from its advertisers in offline newspapers and magazines, with select advertisements in the Chicago Sun-Times.[29] They have been filling unsold space in the newspaper that would have normally been used for in-house advertisements.
Google was added to the S&P 500 index on March 30, 2006. Google replaced Burlington Resources, a major oil producer based in Houston which was acquired by ConocoPhillips.
Acquisitions
See also: List of Google acquisitions
Since 2001, Google has acquired several small start-up companies, often consisting of innovative teams and products. One of the earlier companies that Google bought was Pyra Labs. They were the creators of Blogger, a weblog publishing platform, first launched in 1999. This acquisition led to many premium features becoming free. Pyra Labs was originally formed by Evan Williams, yet he left Google in 2004. In early 2006, Google acquired Upstartle, a company responsible for the online word processor, Writely. The technology in this product was used by Google to eventually create Google Docs & Spreadsheets.
In February 2006, software company Adaptive Path sold Measure Map, a weblog statistics application, to Google. Registration to the service has since been temporarily disabled.
In late 2006, Google bought online video site YouTube for $1.65 billion in stock.[30] Shortly after, on October 31, 2006, Google announced that it had also acquired JotSpot, a developer of wiki technology for collaborative Web sites.[31]
On April 13, 2007, Google reached an agreement to acquire DoubleClick. Google agreed to buy the company for $3.1 billion.[32]
On July 9, 2007, Google announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire enterprise messaging security and compliance company Postini.[33]
Partnerships
In 2005, Google entered into partnerships with other companies and government agencies to improve production and services. Google announced a partnership with NASA Ames Research Center to build up 1 million square feet of offices and work on research projects involving large-scale data management, nanotechnology, distributed computing, and the entrepreneurial space industry.[34] Google also entered into a partnership with Sun Microsystems in October to help share and distribute each other's technologies.[35] The company entered into a partnership with Time Warner's AOL,[36] to enhance each other's video search services.
In 2006, Google and News Corp.'s Fox Interactive Media entered into a $900 million agreement to provide search and advertising on the popular social networking site, MySpace.[37]
Products
Main article: List of Google products
Google has created services and tools for the general public and business environment alike; including Web applications, advertising networks and solutions for businesses.
Advertising
Most of Google's revenue is derived from advertising programs. For the 2006 fiscal year, the company reported $10.492 billion in total advertising revenues and only $112 million in licensing and other revenues.[38] Google AdWords allows Web advertisers to display advertisements in Google's search results and the Google Content Network, through either a cost-per-click or cost-per-view scheme. Google AdSense website owners can also display adverts on their own site, and earn money every time ads are clicked.
Applications
Google is well-known for its web search service, which is a major factor of the company's success. As of December 2006, Google is the most used search engine on the web with a 50.8% market share, ahead of Yahoo! (23.6%) and Live Search (8.4%).[39] Google indexes billions of Web pages, so that users can search for the information they desire, through the use of keywords and operators. Google has also employed the Web Search technology into other search services, including Image Search, Google News, the price comparison site Google Product Search, the interactive Usenet archive Google Groups, Google Maps and more.
In 2004, Google launched its own free web-based email service, known as Gmail.[40] Gmail features spam filtering technology and the capability to use Google technology to search email. The service generates revenue by displaying advertisements from the AdWords service that are tailored to the content of the email messages displayed on screen.
In early 2006, the company launched Google Video, which not only allows users to search and view freely available videos, but also offers users and media publishers the ability to publish their content, including television shows on CBS, NBA basketball games, and music videos.[41]
Google has also developed several desktop applications, including Google Earth, an interactive mapping program powered by satellite imagery that covers the vast majority of the earth. Google Earth is generally considered to be remarkably accurate and extremely detailed. For example, some major cities (Las Vegas, NV, USA for example) have such detailed images that one can zoom in close enough to read the license plates on cars on a street. Consequently, there have been some concerns about national security implications. Specifically, some countries and militaries contend the software can be used to pinpoint with near-precision accuracy the physical location of critical infrastructure, commercial and residential buildings, bases, government agencies, and so on. However, the satellite images are not necessarily frequently updated, and all of them are available at no charge through other products and even government sources (NASA and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, for example.) Some counter this argument by stating that Google Earth makes it easier to access and research the images.
Many other products are available through Google Labs, which is a collection of incomplete applications that are still being tested for use by the general public.
Google has promoted their products in various ways. In London, Google Space was set-up in Heathrow Airport, showcasing several products, including Gmail, Google Earth and Picasa.[42][43] Also, a similar page was launched for American college students, under the name College Life, Powered by Google.[44]
In 2007, some reports surfaced that Google was planning the release of its own mobile phone, possibly a competitor to Apple's iPhone.[45][46][47] The project may be a collaboration between Google and Orange, HTC, Samsung, or another manufacturer. However, very little is known about the project and most of the information available is speculation.
Enterprise products
In 2007, Google launched Google Apps Premium Edition, a software suite for businesses that provides e-mail, instant messaging, calendar, word processing, as well as a spreadsheet program.[48] This product is targeted primarily at the business user, and intended to compete directly versus Microsoft's Office suite, with a price of approximately USD50 per user per year compared to USD500 per user for Microsoft Office.[48] A large implementation of Google Apps with 38,000 users is at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada.[49]
Platform
Main article: Google platform
Google's services are run on several server farms, each consisting of thousands of low-cost commodity computers running stripped-down versions of Linux. While the company does not provide detailed information about its hardware, a 2006 estimate consisted of over 450,000 servers, racked up in clusters located in data centers around the world.[50]
Corporate affairs and culture
A license plate seen in the Googleplex parking lot.Google is particularly known for its relaxed corporate culture, reminiscent of the Dot-com boom. In January 2007, it was cited by Fortune Magazine as the #1 (of 100) best company to work for.[51] Google's corporate philosophy is based on many casual principles including, "You can make money without doing evil", "You can be serious without a suit," and "Work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun." A complete list of corporate fundamentals is available on Google's website.[52] Google's relaxed corporate culture can also be seen externally through their holiday variations of the Google logo.
Typical salaries at Google are considered to be quite low by industry standards. [citation needed] For example, some system administrators earn no more than $35,000 per year – considered to be quite low for the Bay Area job market.[53] However, Google's stock performance following its IPO has enabled many early employees to be competitively compensated by participation in the corporation's remarkable equity growth.[54] Google implemented other employee incentives in 2005, such as the Google Founders' Award, in addition to offering higher salaries to new employees. Google's workplace amenities, culture, global popularity, and strong brand recognition have also attracted potential applicants.
After the company's IPO in August 2004, it was reported that founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page, and CEO Eric Schmidt, requested that their base salary be cut to $1.00.[55] Subsequent offers by the company to increase their salaries have been turned down, primarily because, "their primary compensation continues to come from returns on their ownership stakes in Google. As significant stockholders, their personal wealth is tied directly to sustained stock price appreciation and performance, which provides direct alignment with stockholder interests."[55] Prior to 2004, Schmidt was making $250,000 per year, and Page and Brin each earned a salary of $150,000.[55]
They have all declined recent offers of bonuses and increases in compensation by Google's board of directors. In a 2006 report of the United States' richest people, Forbes reported that Sergey Brin was #12 with a net worth of $14.1 billion, and Larry Page was #13 with a net worth of $14.0 billion.[56]
Googleplex
The GoogleplexMain article: Googleplex
As a play on Google's name, its headquarters, in Mountain View, California, is referred to as "the Googleplex" — a googolplex being 1 followed by a googol of zeros, and the HQ being a complex of buildings (cf. multiplex, cineplex, etc). The lobby is decorated with a piano, lava lamps, old server clusters, and a projection of search queries on the wall. The hallways are full of exercise balls and bicycles. Each employee has access to the corporate recreation center. Recreational amenities are scattered throughout the campus and include a workout room with weights and rowing machines, locker rooms, washers and dryers, a massage room, assorted video games, Foosball, a baby grand piano, a pool table, and ping pong. In addition to the rec room, there are snack rooms stocked with various cereals, gummy bears, toffee, licorice, cashews, yogurt, carrots, fresh fruit, and dozens of different drinks including fresh juice, soda, and make your own cappuccino.
Sign at the GoogleplexIn 2006, Google moved into 311,000 square feet of office space in New York City, at 111 Eighth Ave. in Manhattan.[57] The office was specially designed and built for Google and houses its largest advertising sales team, which has been instrumental in securing large partnerships, most recently deals with MySpace and AOL.[57] In 2003, they added an engineering staff in New York City, which has been responsible for more than 100 engineering projects, including Google Maps, Google Spreadsheets, and others.[57] It is estimated that the building costs Google $10 million per year to rent and is similar in design and functionality to its Mountain View headquarters, including Foosball, air hockey, and ping-pong tables, as well as a video game area.[57]
Google is also making steps to ensure that their operations are environmentally sound. In October 2006, the company announced plans to install thousands of solar panels to provide up to 1.6 megawatts of electricity, enough to satisfy approximately 30% of the campus' energy needs.[58] The system will be the largest solar power system constructed on a U.S. corporate campus and one of the largest on any corporate site in the world.[58] In June 2007, Google announced that they plan to become carbon neutral by 2008, which includes investing in energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, and purchasing carbon offsets, such as investing in projects like capturing and burning methane from animal waste at Mexican and Brazilian farms.[59]
"Twenty percent" time
All Google engineers are encouraged to spend 20% of their work time (one day per week) on projects that interest them. Some of Google's newer services, such as Gmail, Google News, Orkut, and AdSense originated from these independent endeavors.[60] In a talk at Stanford University, Marissa Mayer, Google's vice president of search products and user experience, stated that her analysis showed that half of the new product launches originated from the 20% time.[61]
Easter eggs and April Fool's Day jokes
Main article: Google's hoaxes
Google has a tradition of creating April Fool's Day jokes — such as Google MentalPlex, which allegedly featured the use of mental power to search the web.[62] In 2002, they claimed that pigeons were the secret behind their growing search engine.[63] In 2004, they featured Google Lunar (which claimed to feature jobs on the moon),[64] and in 2005, a fictitious brain-boosting drink, termed Google Gulp was announced.[65] In 2006, they came up with Google Romance, a hypothetical online dating service.[66] In 2007, Google announced two joke products. The first was a free wireless Internet service called TiSP (Toilet Internet Service Provider) [67] in which one obtained a connection by flushing one end of a fiber-optic cable down their toilet and waiting only an hour for a "Plumbing Hardware Dispatcher (PHD)" to connect it to the Internet.[67] Additionally, Google's Gmail page displayed an announcement for Gmail Paper, which allows users of their free email service to have email messages printed and shipped to a snail mail address.[68]
Some thought the announcement of Gmail in 2004 around April Fool's Day (as well as the doubling of Gmail's storage space to two gigabytes in 2005) was a joke, although both of these turned out to be genuine announcements. In 2005, a comedic graph depicting Google's goal of "infinity plus one" GB of storage was featured on the Gmail homepage.
Google's services contain a number of Easter eggs; for instance, the Language Tools page offers the search interface in the Swedish Chef's "Bork bork bork," Pig Latin, ”Hacker” (Actually leetspeak), Elmer Fudd, and Klingon.[69] When asked how to get from a location in the U.S. to a location in Europe (or vice versa), Google Maps will provide directions that include an instruction to "Swim across the Atlantic Ocean." [70] In addition, the search engine calculator provides The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything from Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.[71] As Google's search box can be used as a unit converter (as well as a calculator), some non-standard units are built in, such as the Smoot. Google also routinely modifies its logo in accordance with various holidays or special events throughout the year, such as Christmas, Mother's Day, or various birthdays of notable individuals.[72]
IPO and culture
Many people speculated that Google's IPO would inevitably lead to changes in the company's culture,[73] because of shareholder pressure for employee benefit reductions and short-term advances, or because a large number of the company's employees would suddenly become millionaires on paper. In a report given to potential investors, co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page promised that the IPO would not change the company's culture.[74] Later Mr. Page said, "We think a lot about how to maintain our culture and the fun elements. We spent a lot of time getting our offices right. We think it's important to have a high density of people. People are packed together everywhere. We all share offices. We like this set of buildings because it's more like a densely packed university campus than a typical suburban office park."[75]
However, many analysts are finding that as Google grows the company is becoming more "corporate". In 2005, articles in The New York Times and other sources began suggesting that Google had lost its anti-corporate, no evil philosophy[76][77].[78] In an effort to maintain the company's unique culture, Google has designated a Chief Culture Officer in 2006, who also serves as the Director of Human Resources. The purpose of the Chief Culture Officer is to develop and maintain the culture and work on ways to keep true to the core values that the company was founded on in the beginning — a flat organization, a lack of hierarchy, a collaborative environment.[79]
Google.org
In 2004, Google formed its for-profit philanthropic wing Google.org, giving it a starting fund of $1 billion. The express mission of the organization is to help with the issues of climate change (see also global warming), global public health, and global poverty. Among its first projects is to develop a viable plug-in hybrid electric vehicle that can attain 100 mpg.[80] The current director is Dr. Larry Brilliant.[81]
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Google
As it has grown, Google has found itself the focus of several controversies related to its business practices and services. For example, Google Book Search's effort to digitize millions of books and make the full text searchable has led to copyright disputes with the Authors Guild. Google's cooperation with the governments of China, and to a lesser extent France and Germany (regarding Holocaust denial) to filter search results in accordance to regional laws and regulations has led to claims of censorship. Google's persistent cookie and other information collection practices have led to concerns over user privacy. A number of governments in India have raised concerns about the security risks posed by geographic details provided by Google Earth's satellite imaging.[82] Google has also been criticized by advertisers regarding its inability to combat click fraud, when a person or automated script is used to generate a charge on an advertisement without really having an interest in the product. Industry reports in 2006 claim that approximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were in fact fraudulent or invalid.[83]
See also
Googlebot - Google's Web crawler
Googlepedia
Google China - Chinese subsidiary of Google Web search
Google File System - Google's internal distributed file system
Google Foundation - Charitable arm of Google
Google logo
Google Watch
Search engine
Yahoo!
TrustRank
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Thursday, August 9, 2007
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ - tsunami
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ - tsunami
āļāļēāļāļ§ิāļิāļีāđāļีāļĒ āļŠāļēāļĢāļēāļุāļāļĢāļĄāđāļŠāļĢี
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ (tsunami, – āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļ āļŦāļĢืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ?) āļืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŦāļĢืāļāļāļĨุ่āļĄāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĄีāļุāļāļāļģāđāļิāļāļāļĒู่āđāļāđāļāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĨึāļ āļึ่āļāļĄัāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨ āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļ āļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĢุāļ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļāļĨāļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļั้āļāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢัāļāļĒ์āļŠิāļāđāļ้
āļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ
āļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļāļāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāļ่āļēāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļĄāļēāļ āļัāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļั้āļāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĨ āđāļāļĒāđāļĄ่āļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāļĨัāļāļāļēāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļēāļāļุāļāļāļģāđāļิāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļ้ āđāļāļĒāļั่āļ§āđāļāđāļĨ้āļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ้āļģ āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āļ้āļēāļāļ§่āļēāļāļēāļĢāļŠั่āļāļŠāļ°āđāļืāļāļāļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļี่āđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļāļื้āļāļิāļ āļัāļāļั้āļ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļั่āļāļ āļēāļĒāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āļู้āļāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļั้āļāļĢู้āļŠึāļāļ§่āļēāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ็āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ
āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļĒāļั่āļ§āđāļāļāļ°āļĄีāļุāļāļŠāļĄāļัāļิāļŠāļģāļัāļāļี่āļ§ัāļāđāļ้āļāļĒู่āļŠāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļืāļ āļāļēāļ āļึ่āļāļāļ°āđāļ็āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļĨูāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠāļāļāļĨูāļ āđāļĨāļ° āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļ āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļŦ่āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļĨูāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠāļāļāļĨูāļ āđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļĄีāļāļēāļāļี่āļāļēāļāļĄāļēāļ āđāļāļĒāđāļĢิ่āļĄāļāļēāļāđāļĄ่āļี่āļāļēāļีāđāļāļāļāđāļ็āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āđāļāļāļāļ°āđāļีāļĒāļ§āļัāļāļ็āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĒāļēāļ§āļĄāļēāļ āđāļāļĒāļāļēāļāļĒāļēāļ§āļึāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļĢ้āļāļĒāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļāļāļāļ°āļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļ āļĨāļĄāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 10 āļ§ิāļāļēāļี āđāļĨāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 150 āđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļ่āļēāļั้āļ āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļĄัāļāļ้āļāļĒāļāļ§่āļēāļŦāļึ่āļāđāļĄāļāļĢ āļึ่āļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĄ่āđāļ็āļāļี่āļŠัāļāđāļāļāļāļāļāļู้āļāļāļāļāđāļĢืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļี่āļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļั้āļāđāļ่ 500 āļึāļ 1,000 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āđāļĄื่āļāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļĨāļāļĨāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļĨāļ°āđāļĢิ่āļĄāļ่āļāļัāļ§āđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠูāļ āđāļāļĒāļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 30 āđāļĄāļāļĢ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļāļģāđāļิāļ āļัāļāļั้āļ āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļูāļāļāļģāļัāļāđāļāļĒāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāļื่āļāđ āļĄัāļāļāļĨāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļ āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āļĒัāļāļĄีāđāļāļāļēāļŠāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļĨี้āļĒāļ§āđāļāļāđāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļ้ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļี้ āļāļĨื่āļāđāļĄ่āļāļģāđāļ็āļāļ้āļāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢāļāđāļ่āļēāļัāļāđāļāļุāļāļิāļĻāļุāļāļāļēāļ āđāļāļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢāļāļāļ°āļึ้āļāļัāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļāļģāđāļิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļ ูāļĄิāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļāļั้āļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļĪāļิāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāđāļ็āļ "āļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļื้āļ" āđāļĄื่āļāļัāļāļĢāļēāļŠ่āļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļāļāļāļ้āļģāđāļĨāļ°āļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļ่āļēāļ่āļģ āļัāļāļั้āļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึāļāļĄีāļุāļāļŠāļĄāļัāļิāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļื้āļāđāļĄ้āļāļĒู่āđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĨึāļāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļื้āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āđāļ่āļēāļัāļāļĢāļēāļāļี่āļŠāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĨāļูāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ่āļāļāļēāļāļŠāļāļēāļĄāđāļĢāļāđāļ้āļĄāļ่āļ§āļ (9.8 āđāļĄāļāļĢ/āļ§ิāļāļēāļี2) āđāļĨāļ°āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļāļāļāļ้āļģ āļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļ่āļ āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 4,000 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļี่āļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 200 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļ§ิāļāļēāļี āļŦāļĢืāļ 720 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āļŠ่āļ§āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļ 40 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļ้āļēāļĨāļāđāļŦāļĨืāļ 20 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļ§ิāļāļēāļี āļŦāļĢืāļ 72 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ
āļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļืāļāļāļี่āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļ้āļģāļāļĢิāļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļāđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§ āđāļ่āļ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļāļุ่āļāļāļ
āđāļĄื่āļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨี่āļĒāļāļĢูāļāļĢ่āļēāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļŦัāļ āļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļื่āļāļāļĢัāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāđāļŦ้āđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļุāļāļŠāļĄāļุāļĨāđāļĨāļ°āļāļ°āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨี่āļĒāļāļĢูāļāļĢ่āļēāļāļāļāļāļื้āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĄัāļāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļĄื่āļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĒัāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāđāļāļĨืāļāļāđāļĨāļ āļึ่āļāļāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļāļāļāļāļāļāđāļāļĨืāļāļāđāļĨāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļ่āļāđāļื่āļāļĄāļ่āļāļัāļāļี่āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļ§่āļē āļĢāļāļĒāđāļĨื่āļāļ (fault) āđāļ่āļ āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļĨ้āļ§ āļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļี่āļĄัāļāđāļิāļāļĢ่āļ§āļĄāļัāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āđāļ่āļāļัāļ
āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļืāļāļāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāđāļĨ้āļ§ āļāļēāļĢāļี่āļื้āļāļิāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļĨ่āļĄāļĨāļāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļื้āļāļ้āļģāļāļāļāđāļāļŦāļ§ัāļāļุ āļ็āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļāļĢูāļāđāļāļāļี้āļāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļēāļāļĨāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§āđāļĨāļ°āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļāļĨāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļ่āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļĄāļēāļāļัāļ āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āļ้āļēāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļĄีāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļĄāļēāļāļāļ āļāļēāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļ āđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļึ่āļāļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĢ่āļ§āļĄāļĢ้āļāļĒāđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļ้āļāļ°
āļื่āļāđāļĢีāļĒāļ
āļ§ิāļิāļāļāļāļēāļุāļāļĢāļĄ āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļāļāļāļāļģāļ§่āļē: āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ
āļ āļēāļāļĻิāļĨāļāļ°āļāļāļāļĻิāļĨāļิāļāļāļēāļ§āļี่āļุ่āļ "The Great Wave at Kanagawa" (āļāļēāļāļ āļēāļāļุāļāļāļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļูāļิ) āļāļāļēāļāļāļ§้āļēāļ 10 āļิ้āļ§ āļĒāļēāļ§ 15 āļิ้āļ§ āļี่āđāļ็āļāļĢัāļāļĐāļēāļāļĒู่āļี่ Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York āđāļĄ้āļ§่āļēāļ āļēāļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļāļ°āļูāļāļāļģāđāļāđāļ้āđāļāļāļēāļĢāļูāļāļึāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļ่āđāļ้āļāļĢิāļāđāļĨ้āļ§āļ āļēāļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļŠ่āļ§āļāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ่āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ (āļāļēāļĢāļāļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļี่āļุ่āļāļืāļ /tsunami/ āļŠึāļāļ°āļĄิ āļึ่āļāļ่āļēāļāļัāļāđāļĨ็āļāļ้āļāļĒāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐāļ§่āļē /suËnÉËmi(Ë)/ āļูāļāļēāļĄิ āļŦāļĢืāļ /tsuËnÉËmi(Ë)/ (āļāļู)āļāļēāļĄิ (āļ āļāļ§āļ āļ āđāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāļี่āļุ่āļ) āđāļ็āļāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļิ āđāļāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļี่āļ้āļģāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļŠāļēāļāļŦāļĢืāļāđāļāļ้āļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļĻāļēāļĨ āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļĒ้āļēāļĒāļ่āļēāļĒāđāļāļāļēāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļŦāļึ่āļāļŠู่āļีāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļŦāļึ่āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§ āļัāļāđāļื่āļāļāļĄāļēāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§ āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļ āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļēāļāļ§ัāļāļุāļāļāļāđāļĨāļ āđāļ่āļ āļāļēāļ§āļŦāļēāļ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļ āļāļāļŠู่āļื้āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļŦāļĢืāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļāļāļิāļ§āđāļĨāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļี้āļāļ°āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§āđāļĨāļ°āļĢุāļāđāļĢāļ āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļŠีāļĒāļŦāļēāļĒāļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļŦāļĨāļ§āļāđāļŦ้āđāļ่āļีāļ§ิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢัāļāļĒ์āļŠิāļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļี่āļัāļāļิāļāļēāļĻāđāļ āļāļĢ้āļāļĄ āđ āļัāļāļĄāļุāļĐāļĒ์āļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļĒāļี่āļāļēāļāđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļēāļāđāļ็āļāđāļĨāļ°āļĨ้āļĄāļāļēāļĒāđāļāļ้āļ§āļĒāļĪāļāļิ์āļāļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļิāļัāļิāļ ัāļĒāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļัāļāļāļĨัāļ
āļāļģāļ§่āļē "āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ" āļĄāļēāļāļēāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļี่āļุ่āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļ§่āļē "āļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļ" (æīĨ āļŠึ) āđāļĨāļ° "āļāļĨื่āļ" (æģĒ/æĩŠ āļāļ°āļĄิ) āļĻัāļāļ์āļāļģāļี้āļัāļāļัāļิāļึ้āļāđāļāļĒāļāļēāļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļāļี่āļุ่āļ āļู้āļึ่āļāđāļĨ่āļāđāļĢืāļāļāļĨัāļāđāļ้āļēāļั่āļāļĄāļēāļĒัāļāļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļāļ§่āļēāļุāļāļŠิ่āļāļุāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļี่āđāļāļĒāļĢāļēāļĒāļĨ้āļāļĄāļāļĒู่āļĢāļāļāļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļāļั้āļāļูāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļิāļāļēāļĻāđāļāļāļāļŦāļĄāļāļŠิ้āļ āđāļāļĒāđāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļี่āđāļāļēāļĨāļāļĒāđāļĢืāļāļāļĒู่āļāļĨāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļ§้āļēāļāļั้āļāđāļĄ่āđāļ้āļĢู้āļŠึāļāļŦāļĢืāļāļŠัāļāđāļāļāļāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļิāļāļāļāļิāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļĨāļĒ āļั้āļāļี้āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĄ่āđāļ่āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļิāļ§āļ้āļģāđāļāđāļāļāļ้āļģāļĨึāļ āđāļāļĢāļēāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ (āđāļāļĄāļāļĨิāļูāļ) āļāļāļēāļāđāļĨ็āļāļĄāļēāļāđāļĄื่āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļ้āļģāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āđāļāļāļāļ°āđāļีāļĒāļ§āļัāļāļ็āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļ āļี่āļĒāļēāļ§āļĄāļēāļ (āļāļāļิāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļĢ้āļāļĒāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ) āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļĄ่āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļŠัāļāđāļāļāđāļŦ็āļāđāļ้āļāļāļ°āļี่āļĨāļāļĒāđāļĢืāļāļāļĒู่āļāļāļิāļ§āļ้āļģāļāļĨāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĨึāļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļ°āđāļŦ็āļāđāļ็āļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ่āđāļิāļāļ่āļģ āđ āļāļ°āļุ่āļĄ āđ āļāļĒู่āđāļ้āļ้āļģāđāļ่āļēāļั้āļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี้ āđāļāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļ้āļēāļāļิāļāļึāļāļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļ āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģ (tidal waves) āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļĨ้āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āļāļ°āļĒิ่āļāļĄีāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āđāļŦāļĄืāļāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļŦāļĨāļ่āļ§āļĄāļāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļึ้āļāļี่āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļั่āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļ āļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļēāļี่āļāļ°āļĄีāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āđāļŦāļĄืāļāļāļัāļāđāļāļĨีāļĒāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ่āļģāļāļāļāļŠāļēāļĒāļĨāļĄāļāļēāļāļāļĨāļēāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļั่āļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļāļĒāđāļ้āļāļĢิāļāđāļĨ้āļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĄ่āđāļ้āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļ้āļāļāļŠัāļĄāļัāļāļ์āđāļ āđ āđāļĨāļĒāļัāļāļ้āļģāļึ้āļāļ้āļģāļĨāļ āļึāļāļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļĄāļāļāļ§่āļē āļāļģāļ§่āļē "tidal waves" āļั้āļ āļāļēāļāļāļģāđāļāļŠู่āļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļ้āļēāđāļāļิāļāļึāļāļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุāļāļāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļ้ āļัāļāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļึāļāđāļĄ่āđāļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļ§่āļē "tidal waves" āđāļ่āđāļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĢีāļĒāļāđāļ็āļāļื่āļāļāļēāļāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļ§่āļē "Seismic Sea Wave" āļึ่āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļāļĢāļāđ āđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāđāļāļĒāļ§่āļē āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļĢāļāļŠั่āļāļŠāļ°āđāļืāļāļ āļั้āļāļี้ āđāļāđāļ§็āļāđāļāļ์āđāļĨāļ°āļŦāļัāļāļŠืāļāļāļēāļāđāļĨ่āļĄ āļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļึāļāļื่āļāđāļĢีāļĒāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļāļิāļāļี้āđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐāļิāļ āļืāļ "Harbor Wave" āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļื่āļāļี่āđāļāļĨāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļāļĢāļāļัāļ§āļāļēāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļี่āļุ่āļ āđāļ่āđāļĄ่āđāļ้āđāļŦ้āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāđāļāđ āđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐ
āļั้āļāļี้ āđāļāļāļāļāļēāļุāļāļĢāļĄ Oxford Learner's Dictionary āđāļ้āđāļŦ้āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļāļāļāļāļģāļ§่āļē Tidal Wave āđāļ§้āļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āļŠ่āļ§āļāđāļŦāļ่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āļŠāļĄุāļāļĢ
āđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļĨāļ° āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ
āļĄีāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļ§่āļēāđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 100 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļั้āļāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļ้ āđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļี้āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāđāļื้āļāļี่āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļēāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāļāļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļัāļāļāļĨāļēāļĒāļĨāļāļŠู่āļāļ°āđāļĨ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļāļāļāļĨāļāļŠู่āļāļ°āđāļĨ āđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļāļģāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļŦāļĨāļ§āļāļ่āļāļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāđāļ้
āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļี่āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ (seiche) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļี่āļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļĄัāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļั้āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ āļĄีāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļ§่āļēāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āđāļ่āļāļัāļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠูāļāļี่āļŠุāļāļี่āđāļāļĒāļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļē 500 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄāļี่āļĢัāļāļāļĨāļēāļŠāļāļēāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2501 (āļ.āļĻ. 1958) āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļึāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļĄัāļāđāļ้āļŠāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļ§āđāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§ āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļั้āļāļูāļāļāļģāļŦāļāļāđāļāļĒāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļื้āļāļี่āļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļēāļāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄ
āļŠัāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāđāļŦāļุāđāļĨāļ°āļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒ
āļāļāļ°āļี่āļุāļāļ่āļģāļŠุāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļั่āļ āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļ°āļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĢ่āļāļāļāļĒāļāļāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āļ้āļēāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨāļēāļāļัāļāļ้āļāļĒ āļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļĢ่āļāļāļāļĒāļี้āļāļēāļāļĄāļēāļāļึāļ 800 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļู้āļี่āđāļĄ่āļāļĢāļēāļāļึāļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļี่āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļĒัāļāļāļāļĢāļāļāļĒู่āļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļāđāļ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļี้āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļ่āļģ āļāļēāļāđāļิāļāļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļ้āļ่āļāļāļี่āļĒāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāļāļ°āļāļ°āļั่āļ āļ้āļģāļี่āļ่āļ§āļĄāļี้āļāļēāļāļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļ้āļ่āļāļāļี่āļĒāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļี่āļāļēāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļĄāļē āļัāļāļั้āļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļēāļāļ้āļāļĄูāļĨāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึāļāđāļ็āļāļŠิ่āļāļี่āļŠāļģāļัāļāļี่āļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļัāļāļึāļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒ āļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļ่āļ āđāļāļāļĢāļีāļี่āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāđāļāļāļĢั้āļāđāļĢāļāļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļāļั้āļ āļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļĨื่āļāļĨูāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļēāļĄāļĄāļēāļีāļāđāļ้
āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļŠี่āļĒāļāļ่āļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļิāļāļั้āļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāđāļื่āļāļāļĒāļēāļāļĢāļ์ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢāļ§āļāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļี้
āđāļĄ้āļāļēāļĢāļ้āļāļāļัāļāđāļĄ่āđāļŦ้āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļ°āļĒัāļāļāļģāđāļĄ่āđāļ้ āđāļāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāđāļāļĢื่āļāļāļ้āļāļāļัāļāđāļĨāļ°āļĨāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļŠีāļĒāļŦāļēāļĒāđāļāļāļĢāļีāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļั่āļ āļĒāļāļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļ่āļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļāđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļģāđāļāļāļ้āļāļāļัāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļē 4.5 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļ้āļēāļāļŦāļ้āļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļĢāļŦāļāļēāđāļ่āļ āļāļēāļāļี่āđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļģāđāļāļāļัāļāļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĒāļ้āļģāđāļื่āļāļāļĢัāļāđāļāļĨี่āļĒāļāļิāļĻāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ āđāļĨāļ°āļĨāļāđāļĢāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ āļึāļāđāļĄ้āļ§่āļē āđāļāļāļĢāļีāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļŪāļāļāđāļāđāļāļี่āļĄัāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļēāđāļāļĢื่āļāļāļีāļāļāļ§āļēāļāļี่āđāļ้āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļึ้āļ āļāļģāđāļāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļēāļี้āļāļēāļāļ่āļ§āļĒāļĨāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ่āđāļĄ่āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļี่āļāļ°āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢัāļāļĒ์āļŠิāļāđāļ้
āļŠāļģāļŦāļĢัāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĒ āđāļĄื่āļāļ§ัāļāļี่ 26 āļัāļāļ§āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2547 (āļ.āļĻ. 2004) āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āļ้āļģāđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāđāļ้ āļāļĢāļĄāļุāļุāļิāļĒāļĄāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāđāļ้āļāļāļāļĄāļēāļāļĢāļāļēāļĢāļ้āļāļāļัāļāļ ัāļĒāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļื่āļāđāļืāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāđāļŦ้āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļัāļ§āđāļāļĒāđāļĄ่āļ้āļāļāļĢāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĻāļāļēāļāļāļēāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļēāļĢ
āļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļีāļ
āđāļĄ้āļ§่āļēāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļ่āļāļĒāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ āđāļ่āļ็āđāļ็āļāļี่āļĢู้āļัāļāļัāļāļีāļ§่āļēāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļŠ่āļ§āļāļื่āļāđāļāļāļāđāļĨāļāļ้āļ§āļĒāđāļ่āļāļัāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļĄีāļ้āļāļĄูāļĨāđāļ่āļēāđāļ่āļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļĒāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļิ้āļāļี่āļูāļāļึāļ "āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ" āļี่āļĄีāļāļģāļāļēāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļĨ้āļēāļāļŠูāļāļี้ āļึ่āļāđāļĢีāļĒāļāļāļēāļĄāļĨāļģāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļ่āļāļāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļ้āļัāļāļ่āļāđāļāļี้
6,100 āļีāļ่āļāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻัāļāļĢāļēāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļ่āļ§āļ 6,100 āļีāļ่āļāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻัāļāļĢāļēāļ āđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļāđāļĨāļāļิāļāđāļŦāļืāļ āļัāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāļั้āļāļŦิāļāļี่āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļ§่āļē "en:Storegga Slide" āļึ่āļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļāļĢั้āļāđāļŦāļ่āļิāļāļ่āļāļัāļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļ āđ āļĒāļēāļ§āļāļēāļāđāļ็āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĄื่āļāļี
āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่
āđāļāļี 1650 āļ่āļāļ āļ.āļĻ. āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāđāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่ (Santorini) āđāļāļ่āļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļี 1650 āļ่āļāļ āļ.āļĻ. āļึāļ 1600 āļ่āļāļ āļ.āļĻ. (āđāļ§āļĨāļēāļี่āđāļ่āļāļāļāļĒัāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļัāļāļāļĒู่) āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāđāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่āļāļāļāļāļĢีāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļ āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģ "āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ" āļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļั้āļāđāļ่ 100 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļึāļ 150 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļึ่āļāļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāļ้āļēāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļĢีāļ (Crete) āļึ่āļāļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāļāļāļāđāļ 70 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ (45 āđāļĄāļĨ์) āļāļĢ้āļāļĄāļāļ§āļēāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļ้āļāđāļĄ้āļุāļāļ้āļāļี่āļึ้āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāđāļāļ§āļ่āļēāļĄิāđāļāļัāļ āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļื้āļāļี่āļ่āļēāđāļีāļĒāļ§āļāļุ่āļĄāļĢāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāļāļĢีāļāļāļāļŦāļēāļĒāļ§ัāļāđāļāļŦāļĄāļāđāļāļั่āļ§āļāļĢิāļāļāļē āļāļēāļāļัāļāļ§่āļēāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģ "āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่" āļืāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļ้āļāļĄูāļĨāļี่āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļāļĨāđāļ (Plato) āđāļิāļāđāļĢāļāļัāļāļāļēāļĨāđāļāđāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļีāļĒāļāļ§āļĢāļĢāļāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāđāļ็āļāļāļ§āļิāļĒāļēāļĒāļัāļāđāļĢื่āļāļāđāļāļāđāļĨāļāļิāļŠ (Atlantis) āđāļĨāļ°āļัāļāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļāļāđāļื่āļāļ§่āļē āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ "āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่" āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĢั้āļāļี้āļืāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļี่āļĄāļēāļŠāļģāļัāļāļี่āļāļģāđāļāļŠู่āļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāļึāļāđāļĢื่āļāļāļĢāļēāļ§āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļĨāļ (Great Flood) āļี่āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļัāļĄāļ ีāļĢ์āļั้āļāļāļāļāļāļēāļ§āļĒิāļ§ āļāļĢิāļŠāđāļีāļĒāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļ§āļิāļŠāļĨāļēāļĄ
āđāļĄืāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠ
āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāđāļĄืāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠ (Lisbon, Portugal) āđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2298 (āļ.āļĻ. 1755) āļāļēāļ§āđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĄื่āļāļāļāļĢāļāļāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļĢั้āļāđāļŦāļ่āļี่āļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2298 (āļ.āļĻ. 1755) āđāļ่āļāļĨัāļāļ้āļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļāļัāļāļี āļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āđāļีāļĒāļāđāļĄ่āļี่āļāļēāļี āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļŦāļีāļ ัāļĒāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļāļāđāļāļĒัāļāđāļāļ§āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļ้āļ§āļĒāđāļื่āļāļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļŠāļāļēāļāļี่āļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļāļĨāļāļāļ ัāļĒ āļ้āļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļāļēāļāđāļāđāļŦāļĄ้ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļĢ่āļ§āļāļŦāļĨ่āļāļāļāļāđāļĻāļĐāļŠิ่āļāļāļāļāļ่āļēāļ āđ āđāļ้ āđāļĄื่āļāđāļิāļāđāļāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āļ็āļāļ āļ่āļāļāļŦāļ้āļēāļี่āļāļģāđāļāļāļ้āļģāļี่āļŠูāļāđāļŦāļ่ āļāļ°āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļั้āļ āļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļ้āđāļŦืāļāļāđāļŦ้āļāļĨāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļĨāļāđāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļĢืāļāļŠิāļāļ้āļēāđāļ่āļē āđ āļี่āļāļĢัāļāļŦัāļāļัāļāđāļĨāļ°āļŦāļĨāļāļĨืāļĄāļัāļāđāļāđāļĨ้āļ§ āđāļāļĨ่āļึ้āļāļĄāļēāđāļŦ้āđāļŦ็āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļัāļāđāļāļ
āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļĨāļ°āđāļāđāļŦāļĄ้āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļ่āļāđāļื่āļāļ āđāļ้āļŠัāļāļŦāļēāļĢāļāļēāļ§āđāļĄืāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāđāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 2 āđāļ 3 āļāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļāļēāļ§āđāļĄืāļāļāļั้āļāļŦāļĄāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 275,000 āļāļ āļัāļāļึāļāļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļģāļĢāļ§āļāļāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļāļ āļ§āļēāļŠāđāļ āļāļē āļāļēāļĄāļē āđāļĨāļ° āļāļĢิāļŠāđāļāđāļāļāļĢ์ āđāļāļĨัāļĄāļัāļŠ āļี่āđāļ็āļāđāļ§้āļ็āļŠูāļāļŦāļēāļĒāđāļ āļึāļāļĢāļēāļĄāļāļēāļāļēāļĢāļ่āļēāļ āđ āļāļģāļāļ§āļāļัāļāđāļĄ่āļ้āļ§āļāļูāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒ (āļĢāļ§āļĄāļึāļāļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļāļāļŠāļāļēāļัāļāļĒāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāđāļāļ Manueline āļāļāļāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠ) āļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļิāļāļēāļĻāļāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāļĒัāļāļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļāļ°āđāļĒāļāļāļ°āļĒāļēāļāļ้āļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļĨ่āļēāļāļēāļāļēāļิāļāļĄāļāļāļāļัāļāļĢāļ§āļĢāļĢāļิāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠāļŠāļ°āļุāļāļĨāļāļ้āļ§āļĒ āļāļēāļ§āļĒุāđāļĢāļāđāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻāļāļ§āļĢāļĢāļĐāļี่ 18 āļāļĒāļēāļĒāļēāļĄāļี่āļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļ āļēāļĒāđāļ้āļāļĢāļāļāļāļāļāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļē āđāļĨāļ°āļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļื่āļāđāļāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļŦ่āļāđāļŦāļุāļāļĨ āļัāļāļāļĢัāļāļāļēāđāļāļĒุāļāļŠ่āļāļāļŠāļ§่āļēāļ (the Enlightenment) āđāļāļĒāđāļāļāļēāļ°āļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĒิ่āļ āļ§āļāļĨāđāļāļĢ์ āđāļ้āļัāļāļึāļāđāļĢื่āļāļāļึāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļ āđāļāļ§āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļิāļāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļĢัāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĢิāļŠุāļāļิ์āļĒิ่āļāļึ้āļ āļัāļāđāļ่āļāļี่āļāļิāļāļēāļĒāđāļāļĒāļัāļāļāļĢัāļāļāļē āļิāļĄāļĄāļēāļูāđāļāļĨ āļāļēāļāļ์ (Immanuel Kant) āđāļāļŦāļัāļāļŠืāļ The Observation on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime āļั้āļāļ็āđāļ้āđāļĢāļāļัāļāļāļēāļĨāđāļāļāļēāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļāļĒāļēāļĒāļēāļĄāļี่āļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļึāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢ้āļēāļĒāļāļēāļāļāļāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļี่āļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāļāļĢั้āļāļี้
āļŠัāļāļ§์āļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļĢู้āđāļāļĒāļŠัāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļāļึāļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļี่āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļ āđāļĨāļ°āđāļ้āļŦāļีāļ ัāļĒāļึ้āļāđāļāļĒัāļāļื้āļāļี่āļŠูāļ āļ่āļāļāļŦāļ้āļēāļี่āļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļ°āļัāļāđāļ้āļēāļั่āļ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļี่āļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĢāļีāđāļĢāļāļี่āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āđāļ็āļāđāļāļāļŠāļēāļĢāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļ āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļāļāļ§ีāļāļĒุāđāļĢāļ āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļี้ āđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āđāļ่āļāļัāļāđāļāļĻāļĢีāļĨัāļāļāļēāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2547 āđāļĄื่āļāđāļิāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ āļัāļāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļāļēāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļŠāļāļŠัāļĒāļ§่āļēāļŠัāļāļ§์āļ่āļēāļ āđ āļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢัāļāļŠัāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļĢāļĒ์āļĨีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļี่āļ่āļģ (subsonic Rayleigh waves) āđāļ้āļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļŦāļ§āļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļāļ่āļ§āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāđāļĄ่āļี่āļāļēāļี āļŦāļĢืāļāđāļĄ่āļี่āļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āļ่āļāļāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļāļ°āļัāļāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ่āļģāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ
āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§
āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§ āđāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāđāļĄื่āļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2426 (āļ.āļĻ. 1883) āļŦิāļāđāļŦāļĨāļ§āļĨāļ°āļĨāļēāļĒāđāļ้āļāļĨ่āļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļูāļāļ่āļāļāļāļāļĄāļēāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļ āđāļิāļāđāļāļĢāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļึ้āļāđāļ้āļิāļ āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļื้āļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļี่āļāļĒู่āđāļื้āļāļāļāļāđāļĨāļ°āļื้āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĒุāļāļัāļ§āļĨāļ āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļึ้āļ āļāļēāļāļĨูāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļē 40 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļāļēāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§āđāļāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒāļāļĢั้āļāļี้āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ, āļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ, āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāļāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļē, āļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļēāđāļ้, āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāļีāļāđāļāļ่āļāļāđāļāļāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐ āļŠ่āļ§āļāļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāđāļāļĨ้āđāļีāļĒāļāđāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļ§āļēāđāļĨāļ°āļŠุāļĄāļēāļāļĢāļē āļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļŦāļĨāļ่āļēāļ่āļ§āļĄāļāļ°āļĨัāļāđāļ้āļēāđāļāļึāļāļื้āļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļ āļēāļĒāđāļāļึ่āļāļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļ้āļēāđāļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļāļēāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļĄāļĨ์ āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļŦāļĨāļ§āļāđāļ่āļŠิ่āļāļĄีāļีāļ§ิāļāļี่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļāļĢั้āļāļี้ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāđāļ้āļēāđāļāļั้āļāļิ่āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļีāļāđāļĨāļĒ āļัāļāļุāļัāļāļื้āļāļี่āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี้āđāļ้āļāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļ็āļāđāļāļāļ่āļēāļึāļāļĄีāļื่āļāļ§่āļē āđāļāļāļāļุāļĢัāļāļĐ์āļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļิāļูāļัāļāļูāļĨāļāļ (Ujung Kulon nature reserve)
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļิāļิāļ
āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļิāļิāļ (Pacific Tsunami) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāđāļāļēāļ° Aleutian āđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļŪāļēāļ§āļēāļĒāđāļĨāļ°āļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļ 165 āļāļ āļĄāļŦัāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļĢั้āļāļั้āļāļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāļ่āļāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļŠāļģāļŦāļĢัāļāļāļĢāļĢāļāļēāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļั้āļāļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĄāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2492 (āļ.āļĻ. 1949)
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļิāļĨี
āļ.āļĻ. 2503 (āļ.āļĻ. 1960) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļิāļĨี (Chilean tsunami) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļĢั้āļāđāļŦāļ่āļิāļĨี (The Great Chilean Earthquake) āļĄีāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļ 9.5 āļĢิāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļี่āļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļ่āļēāļี่āđāļāļĒāļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้ āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļāļāļāļĨāļēāļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āļāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļĨี āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļ§ิāļัāļิāļŦāļēāļĒāļāļ°āļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻāļāļ§āļĢāļĢāļĐāļี่ 20 āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļāļั้āļāļŦāļĄāļ āļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļึāļ 25 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāđāļāļิāļāļēāļ§āļē āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļ āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļēāļāđāļืāļāļ 22 āļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļāļั้āļ āļāļāļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āļĢāļ°āļุāļ§่āļēāļŠูāļāļึāļ 10 āļุāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģ āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļ§่āļēāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļĄāļĄāļēāļĄีāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļ 490 - 2,290 āļĢāļēāļĒ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļู๊āļāļāļĢāļēāļĒ์āđāļāļĒ์
āļ.āļĻ. 2507 (āļ.āļĻ. 1964) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļู๊āļāļāļĢāļēāļĒ์āđāļāļĒ์ (Good Friday Tsunami) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļู๊āļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāđāļāļĒ์āļāļāļēāļ 9.2 āļĢิāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2507 (āļ.āļĻ. 1964) āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠิāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē, āļāļĢิāļิāļ āđāļāļĨัāļĄāđāļีāļĒ, āđāļāļĨิāļāļāļĢ์āđāļีāļĒāđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāđāļĄืāļāļāđāļāļิāļิāļāļāļāļĢ์āļāđāļ§āļŠāļ์āđāļāļŠāļŦāļĢัāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļē āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ 122 āļāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļึāļ 6 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļāđāļĄืāļāļ Crescent City āļึ่āļāļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāđāļāđāļāļĨิāļāļāļĢ์āđāļีāļĒāļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ 11 āļāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ
āļ āļēāļāđāļŠāļāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨāļēāļĒāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2547āļ.āļĻ. 2547 (āļ.āļĻ. 2004) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļĢั้āļāđāļĢāļāđāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ āđāļĄื่āļāļ§ัāļāļี่ 26 āļัāļāļ§āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2547 (āļ.āļĻ. 2004)āļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļĨ่āļēāļŠุāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļāļ§่āļē 165,000 āļĢāļēāļĒ (āļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 105,000 āļĢāļēāļĒāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ) āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢ่āļēāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļี่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āđāļāļĨ้āļัāļāļุāļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļ่āļ āļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ, āđāļāļĒ, āđāļĨāļ°āļื้āļāļี่āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāļĄāļēāđāļĨāđāļีāļĒ āđāļāļāļāļึāļāļื้āļāļี่āļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļāļัāļāļāļĨāļēāđāļāļĻ, āļิāļāđāļีāļĒ, āļĻāļĢีāļĨัāļāļāļē, āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļĄัāļĨāļีāļĨāļ์, āđāļĨāļ°āđāļĄ้āļāļĢāļ°āļั่āļāđāļāļĄāļēāđāļĨีāļĒ, āđāļāļāļĒāļē, āđāļĨāļ°āđāļāļāļāļēāđāļีāļĒ āļึ่āļāļั้āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāđāļāļāđāļāļāļĢิāļāļēāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļ
āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāđāļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒāđāļŦāļĨ่āļēāļี้ āļĒัāļāđāļĄ่āļĄีāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠāļĄāļูāļĢāļ์āļāļāļัāļāđāļ่āļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļ ูāļĄิāļ āļēāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ āļŠ่āļ§āļāļŦāļึ่āļāđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļĄ่āļĄีāļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āđāļāļ ูāļĄิāļ āļēāļāļĄāļēāļāļēāļāđāļĨ้āļ§ āļัāļāļั้āļāđāļ่āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§āđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2426 (āļ.āļĻ. 1883) āļึ่āļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ 36,000 āļāļ āļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒāļĨ่āļēāļŠุāļāļี้āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้ āļĒูāđāļāļŠāđāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļāļ์āļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļŦ่āļāļāļāļāļĄāļēāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļĢ้āļāļāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļั้āļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĨāļāļึ้āļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ้
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ้
āļ§ัāļāđāļ§āļĨāļē - āļŠāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļ
18 āļāļĢāļāļāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2549 - āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļ§āļē āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāđāļ้
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāđāļ้[1]
āļ§ัāļāđāļ§āļĨāļē - āļŠāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļ
āļ.āļĻ. 2067 (āļ.āļĻ. 1524) - āđāļāļĨ้āđāļĄืāļāļ Dabhol āļĢัāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļĢัāļāļāļ° āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ
2 āđāļĄāļĐāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2305 (āļ.āļĻ. 1762) - āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļĢāļ°āļัāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļāļĄ่āļē
16 āļĄิāļุāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2362 (āļ.āļĻ. 1819 - Rann of Kachchh āļĢัāļāļุāļāļēāļĢāļēāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ
31 āļุāļĨāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2390 (āļ.āļĻ. 1847) - āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļิāđāļāļāļēāļĢ์āđāļŦāļ่
31 āļัāļāļ§āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2424 (āļ.āļĻ. 1881) - āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļĢ์āļิāđāļāļāļēāļĢ์
26 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2426 (āļ.āļĻ. 1883) - āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§āļĢāļ°āđāļิāļ
28 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2488 (āļ.āļĻ. 1945) - āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ Mekran āļāļēāļĨูāļิāļŠāļāļēāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļēāđāļĨāļ°āđāļāļĢิāļāđāļีāļĒāļ
11 āļุāļĨāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2461 (āļ.āļĻ. 1918) - āđāļāļāļĢ์āđāļāļĢิāđāļ
18 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2472 (āļ.āļĻ. 1929) - āļิāļ§āļāļēāļ§āļāļ์āđāļĨāļāļ์
4 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) - āļŠāļēāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢัāļāđāļāļĄิāļิāļัāļ
18 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) - āļŠāļēāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢัāļāđāļāļĄิāļิāļัāļ
14 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2383 (āļ.āļĻ. 1840) - āđāļāļĢāļ āļŠāđāļ§āļĨāļĨ์āđāļāđāļĄ่āļ้āļģāđāļāļĨāļēāđāļ§āļĢ์
17 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2415 (āļ.āļĻ. 1872) - āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļĄāļ
9 āļĄāļāļĢāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2469 (āļ.āļĻ. 1926) - āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļĄāļ
19 āļāļĪāļĐāļ āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2507 (āļ.āļĻ. 1964) - āļั่āļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāļŠāļŦāļĢัāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļē
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļื่āļāđ āļี่āđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļีāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļีāļāļี่āļ่āļēāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļāđāļĨāļāļĒัāļāļĄีāļีāļāļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļĒ āļี่āļŠāļģāļัāļāđ āļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļ้āļ§āļĒ
20 āļĄāļāļĢāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2150 (āļ.āļĻ. 1607): āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļāļāļี่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļ่āļāļāđāļāļāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐ (Bristol Channel) āļāļĄāļ้āļģāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ āļāļāļ°āļี่āļ้āļēāļāđāļĢืāļāļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāđāļĨāļ°āļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļŦ่āļāļูāļāļ้āļģāļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļāļŦāļēāļĒāļĨāļāđāļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļี่āđāļ่āļāļ่āļ§āļĄāļāļĒ่āļēāļ§āļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§āļึ่āļāļāļēāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุāļี่āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļāļāļĢั้āļāļั้āļāļĒัāļāđāļ็āļāļี่āļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļัāļāļāļĒู่ āđāļ่āļ็āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļ็āļāđāļāđāļ้āļ§่āļēāļāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุ 2 āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļ่āļ§āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāđāļีāļĒāļ§āļัāļāđāļāļĒāļĄิāđāļ้āļāļēāļāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļĄāļēāļ่āļāļ āļืāļ āļŠāļ āļēāļāļิāļāļ้āļēāļāļēāļāļēāļĻāļี่āļ§ิāļāļĢิāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāđāļĨāļ°āļ่āļ§āļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āļŦāļุāļāļึ้āļāļŠูāļāļŠุāļ
āļĄāļŦัāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļĢั้āļāđāļĨāļ§āļĢ้āļēāļĒāļี่āļŠุāļāļีāļāļāļĢั้āļāļŦāļึ่āļ āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļี่āļั้āļāļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāļĢิāļู (Sanriku) āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2439 (āļ.āļĻ. 1896) āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļēāļึāļ 7 āļั้āļ (āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 70 āđāļĄāļāļĢ) āļāļĢ้āļāļĄāļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļāļāļĨืāļāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļ 26,000 āļāļāļĨāļāļŠู่āļ้āļāļāļāļ°āđāļĨ
āļ.āļĻ. 2472 (āļ.āļĻ. 1929): āđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ° Aleutian āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļŪāļēāļ§āļēāļĒāļāļĨืāļāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāđāļ 159 āļĢāļēāļĒ (āļāļāļ°āļี่āļีāļ 5 āļĢāļēāļĒ āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļāļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē)
āļ.āļĻ. 2501 (āļ.āļĻ. 1958): āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļ่āļēāļ§ Lituya Bay āļĢัāļāļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē āđāļ็āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāļēāļ°āļ้āļāļāļิ่āļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļื้āļāļี่āđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļĨāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļģāļัāļāļ§āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļāļēāļ°āđāļāļ่āļēāļ§ āđāļ่āđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠูāļāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāļāļēāļĢāļ์ āđāļāļĒāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 500 āđāļĄāļāļĢ ( 1,500 āļุāļ) āđāļŦāļืāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļĄ่āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāđāļāđāļāļĨāļāļēāļāđāļāļ§āļāļĒāļāļĢ์āļ (fjord) āļี่āļĨ้āļāļĄāļĢāļāļāļāļĒู่āđāļ้ āđāļ่āļ็āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āļีāļ§ิāļ 2 āļĢāļēāļĒāļāļēāļāđāļĢืāļāļี่āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļāļģāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļั้āļ
āļ.āļĻ. 2519 (āļ.āļĻ. 1976): 16 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ (āđāļี่āļĒāļāļืāļ) āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļ ูāļĄิāļ āļēāļāļĢāļāļāļ่āļēāļ§āđāļĄāđāļĢ (āđāļĄืāļāļāđāļāļāļēāļāļēāđāļ) āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļĨิāļāļิāļāļŠ์ āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 5,000 āļĢāļēāļĒ
āļ.āļĻ. 2526 (āļ.āļĻ. 1983): āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļ 104 āļĢāļēāļĒāđāļāļ āļēāļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āđāļāļĨ้āđāļีāļĒāļ
17 āļāļĢāļāļāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2541 (āļ.āļĻ. 1998): āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļัāļ§āļิāļ§āļิāļีāļāļĢ่āļēāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 2,200 āļĢāļēāļĒ āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļ 7.1 āļĢิāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āđāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļ 15 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ āļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļัāļ§āļิāļ§āļิāļี āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļāļŦ่āļēāļāļāļēāļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļั้āļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ่ 10 āļāļēāļี āļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļŠูāļ 12 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļ็āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āđāļāļāļāļ°āļี่āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļĒัāļāđāļĄāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļี่āļāļ°āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļ้āđāļāļĒāļāļĢāļāđāļ่āļāļēāļĢāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āđāļ้āļั้āļ āđāļื่āļāļัāļāļ§่āļē āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§ āđāļĨāļ°āđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļŦāļĨัāļāļี้āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึ้āļ āļŠāļāļāļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļāļāļāļāļēāļัāļ§āļิāļ§āļิāļีāļืāļ āļāļēāļĢāļāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļ§āļēāļĢāļēāļู āļูāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļĢีāļĒāļāđāļ็āļāļŦāļ้āļēāļāļĨāļāļ
āļāļēāļĢāļāļģāļāļēāļĒāļ§่āļēāļāļ°āđāļิāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ
āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļ็āļāđāļāđāļ้āļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļ [2]
9 āļĄิāļุāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2456 (āļ.āļĻ. 1913) - āļĨāļāļāļāļāļĢ์āļ āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี
6 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2466 (āļ.āļĻ. 1923) - āļĢ็āļāļāļāļ°āđāļ§āļĒ์āļāļēāļĢ์āļ, āļāļ§ีāļ, āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āļĒāļāļĢ์āļ
8 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2467 (āļ.āļĻ. 1924) - āđāļāļี่ āđāļāļĢ์āđāļĨāļāļ์, āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āļĒāļāļĢ์āļ
19 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2474 (āļ.āļĻ. 1931) - āđāļĄืāļāļāđāļāļāđāļĨāļāļิāļāļิāļี āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี
21 āļัāļāļĒāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2481 (āļ.āļĻ. 1938) - āđāļŪāļāļĢ์āļĢิāđāļāļ, āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี
3-4 āļāļĢāļāļāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2535 (āļ.āļĻ. 1992) - āļŦāļēāļāđāļāļĒ์āđāļāļāļē āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļāļĨāļāļĢิāļāļē
āļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĄāļีāļāļāļāļŠāļ°āđāļ็āļāļāļēāļ§ - āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļāļĄāļŠ์ āđāļāļāļĒāļāļ āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļāļ่āļēāļ§āđāļāļŠāļ°āļีāļ (Chesapeake Bay) āđāļāđāļāļāļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļ§āļāļĢ์āļิāđāļีāļĒāđāļĨāļ° āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļĄāļĢิāđāļĨāļāļ์
āļāļēāļāļ§ิāļิāļีāđāļีāļĒ āļŠāļēāļĢāļēāļุāļāļĢāļĄāđāļŠāļĢี
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ (tsunami, – āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļ āļŦāļĢืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ?) āļืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŦāļĢืāļāļāļĨุ่āļĄāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĄีāļุāļāļāļģāđāļิāļāļāļĒู่āđāļāđāļāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĨึāļ āļึ่āļāļĄัāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨ āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļ āļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĢุāļ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļāļĨāļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļั้āļāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢัāļāļĒ์āļŠิāļāđāļ้
āļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ
āļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļāļāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāļ่āļēāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļĄāļēāļ āļัāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļั้āļāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĨ āđāļāļĒāđāļĄ่āļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāļĨัāļāļāļēāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļēāļāļุāļāļāļģāđāļิāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļ้ āđāļāļĒāļั่āļ§āđāļāđāļĨ้āļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ้āļģ āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āļ้āļēāļāļ§่āļēāļāļēāļĢāļŠั่āļāļŠāļ°āđāļืāļāļāļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļี่āđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļāļื้āļāļิāļ āļัāļāļั้āļ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļั่āļāļ āļēāļĒāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āļู้āļāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļั้āļāļĢู้āļŠึāļāļ§่āļēāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ็āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ
āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļĒāļั่āļ§āđāļāļāļ°āļĄีāļุāļāļŠāļĄāļัāļิāļŠāļģāļัāļāļี่āļ§ัāļāđāļ้āļāļĒู่āļŠāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļืāļ āļāļēāļ āļึ่āļāļāļ°āđāļ็āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļĨูāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠāļāļāļĨูāļ āđāļĨāļ° āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļ āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļŦ่āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļĨูāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠāļāļāļĨูāļ āđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļĄีāļāļēāļāļี่āļāļēāļāļĄāļēāļ āđāļāļĒāđāļĢิ่āļĄāļāļēāļāđāļĄ่āļี่āļāļēāļีāđāļāļāļāđāļ็āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āđāļāļāļāļ°āđāļีāļĒāļ§āļัāļāļ็āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĒāļēāļ§āļĄāļēāļ āđāļāļĒāļāļēāļāļĒāļēāļ§āļึāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļĢ้āļāļĒāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļāļāļāļ°āļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļ āļĨāļĄāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 10 āļ§ิāļāļēāļี āđāļĨāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 150 āđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļ่āļēāļั้āļ āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļĄัāļāļ้āļāļĒāļāļ§่āļēāļŦāļึ่āļāđāļĄāļāļĢ āļึ่āļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĄ่āđāļ็āļāļี่āļŠัāļāđāļāļāļāļāļāļู้āļāļāļāļāđāļĢืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļี่āļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļั้āļāđāļ่ 500 āļึāļ 1,000 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āđāļĄื่āļāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļĨāļāļĨāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļĨāļ°āđāļĢิ่āļĄāļ่āļāļัāļ§āđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠูāļ āđāļāļĒāļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 30 āđāļĄāļāļĢ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļāļģāđāļิāļ āļัāļāļั้āļ āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļูāļāļāļģāļัāļāđāļāļĒāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāļื่āļāđ āļĄัāļāļāļĨāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļ āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āļĒัāļāļĄีāđāļāļāļēāļŠāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļĨี้āļĒāļ§āđāļāļāđāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļ้ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļี้ āļāļĨื่āļāđāļĄ่āļāļģāđāļ็āļāļ้āļāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢāļāđāļ่āļēāļัāļāđāļāļุāļāļิāļĻāļุāļāļāļēāļ āđāļāļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢāļāļāļ°āļึ้āļāļัāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļāļģāđāļิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļ ูāļĄิāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļāļั้āļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļĪāļิāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāđāļ็āļ "āļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļื้āļ" āđāļĄื่āļāļัāļāļĢāļēāļŠ่āļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļāļāļāļ้āļģāđāļĨāļ°āļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļ่āļēāļ่āļģ āļัāļāļั้āļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึāļāļĄีāļุāļāļŠāļĄāļัāļิāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļื้āļāđāļĄ้āļāļĒู่āđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĨึāļāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āļāļĨื่āļāļ้āļģāļื้āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āđāļ่āļēāļัāļāļĢāļēāļāļี่āļŠāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĨāļูāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ่āļāļāļēāļāļŠāļāļēāļĄāđāļĢāļāđāļ้āļĄāļ่āļ§āļ (9.8 āđāļĄāļāļĢ/āļ§ิāļāļēāļี2) āđāļĨāļ°āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļāļāļāļ้āļģ āļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļ่āļ āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 4,000 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļี่āļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 200 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļ§ิāļāļēāļี āļŦāļĢืāļ 720 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āļŠ่āļ§āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨึāļ 40 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļ้āļēāļĨāļāđāļŦāļĨืāļ 20 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļ§ิāļāļēāļี āļŦāļĢืāļ 72 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāļ่āļāļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ
āļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļืāļāļāļี่āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļ้āļģāļāļĢิāļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļāđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§ āđāļ่āļ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļāļุ่āļāļāļ
āđāļĄื่āļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨี่āļĒāļāļĢูāļāļĢ่āļēāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļŦัāļ āļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļื่āļāļāļĢัāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāđāļŦ้āđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļุāļāļŠāļĄāļุāļĨāđāļĨāļ°āļāļ°āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨี่āļĒāļāļĢูāļāļĢ่āļēāļāļāļāļāļื้āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĄัāļāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļĄื่āļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĒัāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāđāļāļĨืāļāļāđāļĨāļ āļึ่āļāļāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļāļāļāļāļāļāđāļāļĨืāļāļāđāļĨāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļ่āļāđāļื่āļāļĄāļ่āļāļัāļāļี่āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļ§่āļē āļĢāļāļĒāđāļĨื่āļāļ (fault) āđāļ่āļ āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļĨ้āļ§ āļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļี่āļĄัāļāđāļิāļāļĢ่āļ§āļĄāļัāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āđāļ่āļāļัāļ
āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļืāļāļāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāđāļĨ้āļ§ āļāļēāļĢāļี่āļื้āļāļิāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļĨ่āļĄāļĨāļāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļื้āļāļ้āļģāļāļāļāđāļāļŦāļ§ัāļāļุ āļ็āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļāļĢูāļāđāļāļāļี้āļāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļēāļāļĨāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§āđāļĨāļ°āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļāļĨāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļ่āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļĄāļēāļāļัāļ āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āļ้āļēāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļĄีāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļĄāļēāļāļāļ āļāļēāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļ āđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļึ่āļāļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĢ่āļ§āļĄāļĢ้āļāļĒāđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļ้āļāļ°
āļื่āļāđāļĢีāļĒāļ
āļ§ิāļิāļāļāļāļēāļุāļāļĢāļĄ āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļāļāļāļāļģāļ§่āļē: āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ
āļ āļēāļāļĻิāļĨāļāļ°āļāļāļāļĻิāļĨāļิāļāļāļēāļ§āļี่āļุ่āļ "The Great Wave at Kanagawa" (āļāļēāļāļ āļēāļāļุāļāļāļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļูāļิ) āļāļāļēāļāļāļ§้āļēāļ 10 āļิ้āļ§ āļĒāļēāļ§ 15 āļิ้āļ§ āļี่āđāļ็āļāļĢัāļāļĐāļēāļāļĒู่āļี่ Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York āđāļĄ้āļ§่āļēāļ āļēāļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļāļ°āļูāļāļāļģāđāļāđāļ้āđāļāļāļēāļĢāļูāļāļึāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļ่āđāļ้āļāļĢิāļāđāļĨ้āļ§āļ āļēāļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļŠ่āļ§āļāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ่āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ (āļāļēāļĢāļāļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļี่āļุ่āļāļืāļ /tsunami/ āļŠึāļāļ°āļĄิ āļึ่āļāļ่āļēāļāļัāļāđāļĨ็āļāļ้āļāļĒāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐāļ§่āļē /suËnÉËmi(Ë)/ āļูāļāļēāļĄิ āļŦāļĢืāļ /tsuËnÉËmi(Ë)/ (āļāļู)āļāļēāļĄิ (āļ āļāļ§āļ āļ āđāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāļี่āļุ่āļ) āđāļ็āļāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļิ āđāļāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļี่āļ้āļģāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļŠāļēāļāļŦāļĢืāļāđāļāļ้āļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļĻāļēāļĨ āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļĒ้āļēāļĒāļ่āļēāļĒāđāļāļāļēāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļŦāļึ่āļāļŠู่āļีāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļŦāļึ่āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§ āļัāļāđāļื่āļāļāļĄāļēāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§ āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļ āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļēāļāļ§ัāļāļุāļāļāļāđāļĨāļ āđāļ่āļ āļāļēāļ§āļŦāļēāļ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļ āļāļāļŠู่āļื้āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļŦāļĢืāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļāļāļิāļ§āđāļĨāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļี้āļāļ°āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§āđāļĨāļ°āļĢุāļāđāļĢāļ āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļŠีāļĒāļŦāļēāļĒāļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļŦāļĨāļ§āļāđāļŦ้āđāļ่āļีāļ§ิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢัāļāļĒ์āļŠิāļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļี่āļัāļāļิāļāļēāļĻāđāļ āļāļĢ้āļāļĄ āđ āļัāļāļĄāļุāļĐāļĒ์āļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļĒāļี่āļāļēāļāđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļēāļāđāļ็āļāđāļĨāļ°āļĨ้āļĄāļāļēāļĒāđāļāļ้āļ§āļĒāļĪāļāļิ์āļāļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļิāļัāļิāļ ัāļĒāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļัāļāļāļĨัāļ
āļāļģāļ§่āļē "āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ" āļĄāļēāļāļēāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļี่āļุ่āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļ§่āļē "āļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļ" (æīĨ āļŠึ) āđāļĨāļ° "āļāļĨื่āļ" (æģĒ/æĩŠ āļāļ°āļĄิ) āļĻัāļāļ์āļāļģāļี้āļัāļāļัāļิāļึ้āļāđāļāļĒāļāļēāļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļāļี่āļุ่āļ āļู้āļึ่āļāđāļĨ่āļāđāļĢืāļāļāļĨัāļāđāļ้āļēāļั่āļāļĄāļēāļĒัāļāļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļāļ§่āļēāļุāļāļŠิ่āļāļุāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļี่āđāļāļĒāļĢāļēāļĒāļĨ้āļāļĄāļāļĒู่āļĢāļāļāļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļāļั้āļāļูāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļิāļāļēāļĻāđāļāļāļāļŦāļĄāļāļŠิ้āļ āđāļāļĒāđāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļี่āđāļāļēāļĨāļāļĒāđāļĢืāļāļāļĒู่āļāļĨāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļ§้āļēāļāļั้āļāđāļĄ่āđāļ้āļĢู้āļŠึāļāļŦāļĢืāļāļŠัāļāđāļāļāļāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļิāļāļāļāļิāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļĨāļĒ āļั้āļāļี้āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĄ่āđāļ่āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļิāļ§āļ้āļģāđāļāđāļāļāļ้āļģāļĨึāļ āđāļāļĢāļēāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ (āđāļāļĄāļāļĨิāļูāļ) āļāļāļēāļāđāļĨ็āļāļĄāļēāļāđāļĄื่āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļ้āļģāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āđāļāļāļāļ°āđāļีāļĒāļ§āļัāļāļ็āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļāļĨื่āļ āļี่āļĒāļēāļ§āļĄāļēāļ (āļāļāļิāļāļ°āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĒāļēāļ§āļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļĢ้āļāļĒāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ) āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļĄ่āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļŠัāļāđāļāļāđāļŦ็āļāđāļ้āļāļāļ°āļี่āļĨāļāļĒāđāļĢืāļāļāļĒู่āļāļāļิāļ§āļ้āļģāļāļĨāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĨึāļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļ°āđāļŦ็āļāđāļ็āļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ่āđāļิāļāļ่āļģ āđ āļāļ°āļุ่āļĄ āđ āļāļĒู่āđāļ้āļ้āļģāđāļ่āļēāļั้āļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี้ āđāļāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļ้āļēāļāļิāļāļึāļāļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļ āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģ (tidal waves) āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļĨ้āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āļāļ°āļĒิ่āļāļĄีāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āđāļŦāļĄืāļāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļŦāļĨāļ่āļ§āļĄāļāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļึ้āļāļี่āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļั่āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļ āļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļēāļี่āļāļ°āļĄีāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āđāļŦāļĄืāļāļāļัāļāđāļāļĨีāļĒāļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ่āļģāļāļāļāļŠāļēāļĒāļĨāļĄāļāļēāļāļāļĨāļēāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļั่āļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļāļĒāđāļ้āļāļĢิāļāđāļĨ้āļ§āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĄ่āđāļ้āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļ้āļāļāļŠัāļĄāļัāļāļ์āđāļ āđ āđāļĨāļĒāļัāļāļ้āļģāļึ้āļāļ้āļģāļĨāļ āļึāļāļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļĄāļāļāļ§่āļē āļāļģāļ§่āļē "tidal waves" āļั้āļ āļāļēāļāļāļģāđāļāļŠู่āļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļ้āļēāđāļāļิāļāļึāļāļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุāļāļāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļ้ āļัāļāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļึāļāđāļĄ่āđāļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļ§่āļē "tidal waves" āđāļ่āđāļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĢีāļĒāļāđāļ็āļāļื่āļāļāļēāļāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļ§่āļē "Seismic Sea Wave" āļึ่āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļāļĢāļāđ āđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāđāļāļĒāļ§่āļē āļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļĢāļāļŠั่āļāļŠāļ°āđāļืāļāļ āļั้āļāļี้ āđāļāđāļ§็āļāđāļāļ์āđāļĨāļ°āļŦāļัāļāļŠืāļāļāļēāļāđāļĨ่āļĄ āļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļึāļāļื่āļāđāļĢีāļĒāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļāļิāļāļี้āđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐāļิāļ āļืāļ "Harbor Wave" āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļื่āļāļี่āđāļāļĨāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļāļĢāļāļัāļ§āļāļēāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļี่āļุ่āļ āđāļ่āđāļĄ่āđāļ้āđāļŦ้āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāđāļāđ āđāļāļ āļēāļĐāļēāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐ
āļั้āļāļี้ āđāļāļāļāļāļēāļุāļāļĢāļĄ Oxford Learner's Dictionary āđāļ้āđāļŦ้āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļāļāļāļāļģāļ§่āļē Tidal Wave āđāļ§้āļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āļŠ่āļ§āļāđāļŦāļ่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āļŠāļĄุāļāļĢ
āđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļĨāļ° āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ
āļĄีāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļ§่āļēāđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 100 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļั้āļāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļ้ āđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļี้āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāđāļื้āļāļี่āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļēāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāļāļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļัāļāļāļĨāļēāļĒāļĨāļāļŠู่āļāļ°āđāļĨ āļŦāļĢืāļāļุāļāļāļēāļāļēāļāļāļāļĨāļāļŠู่āļāļ°āđāļĨ āđāļĄāļāļ°āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļāļģāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļŦāļĨāļ§āļāļ่āļāļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāđāļ้
āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļี่āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļืāļ āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ (seiche) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļี่āļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļĄัāļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļั้āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļ āļĄีāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļ§่āļēāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āđāļ่āļāļัāļ
āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠูāļāļี่āļŠุāļāļี่āđāļāļĒāļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļē 500 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄāļี่āļĢัāļāļāļĨāļēāļŠāļāļēāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2501 (āļ.āļĻ. 1958) āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļĢāļ็āļāļēāļĄ āđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļึāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļĄัāļāđāļ้āļŠāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļ§āđāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§ āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļั้āļāļูāļāļāļģāļŦāļāļāđāļāļĒāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļāļāļื้āļāļี่āļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļēāļāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļāļĨ่āļĄ
āļŠัāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāđāļŦāļุāđāļĨāļ°āļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒ
āļāļāļ°āļี่āļุāļāļ่āļģāļŠุāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļั่āļ āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļ°āļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĢ่āļāļāļāļĒāļāļāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āļ้āļēāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļั้āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĨāļēāļāļัāļāļ้āļāļĒ āļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļĢ่āļāļāļāļĒāļี้āļāļēāļāļĄāļēāļāļึāļ 800 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļู้āļี่āđāļĄ่āļāļĢāļēāļāļึāļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļี่āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļĒัāļāļāļāļĢāļāļāļĒู่āļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļāđāļ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļี้āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļ่āļģ āļāļēāļāđāļิāļāļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļ้āļ่āļāļāļี่āļĒāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāļāļ°āļāļ°āļั่āļ āļ้āļģāļี่āļ่āļ§āļĄāļี้āļāļēāļāļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļ้āļ่āļāļāļี่āļĒāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļัāļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļี่āļāļēāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļĄāļē āļัāļāļั้āļāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļēāļāļ้āļāļĄูāļĨāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึāļāđāļ็āļāļŠิ่āļāļี่āļŠāļģāļัāļāļี่āļāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļัāļāļึāļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒ āļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļ่āļ āđāļāļāļĢāļีāļี่āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāđāļāļāļĢั้āļāđāļĢāļāļĨāļāļĨāļāđāļāļั้āļ āļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļĨื่āļāļĨูāļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļēāļĄāļĄāļēāļีāļāđāļ้
āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļŠี่āļĒāļāļ่āļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļิāļāļั้āļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāđāļื่āļāļāļĒāļēāļāļĢāļ์ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢāļ§āļāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļี้
āđāļĄ้āļāļēāļĢāļ้āļāļāļัāļāđāļĄ่āđāļŦ้āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļ°āļĒัāļāļāļģāđāļĄ่āđāļ้ āđāļāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāđāļāļĢื่āļāļāļ้āļāļāļัāļāđāļĨāļ°āļĨāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļŠีāļĒāļŦāļēāļĒāđāļāļāļĢāļีāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļั่āļ āļĒāļāļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļ่āļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļāđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļģāđāļāļāļ้āļāļāļัāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļē 4.5 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļ้āļēāļāļŦāļ้āļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļĢāļŦāļāļēāđāļ่āļ āļāļēāļāļี่āđāļ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļģāđāļāļāļัāļāļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĒāļ้āļģāđāļื่āļāļāļĢัāļāđāļāļĨี่āļĒāļāļิāļĻāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ āđāļĨāļ°āļĨāļāđāļĢāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļ āļึāļāđāļĄ้āļ§่āļē āđāļāļāļĢāļีāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļŪāļāļāđāļāđāļāļี่āļĄัāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļēāđāļāļĢื่āļāļāļีāļāļāļ§āļēāļāļี่āđāļ้āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļึ้āļ āļāļģāđāļāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļēāļี้āļāļēāļāļ่āļ§āļĒāļĨāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļĢ็āļ§āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ่āđāļĄ่āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļี่āļāļ°āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢัāļāļĒ์āļŠิāļāđāļ้
āļŠāļģāļŦāļĢัāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĒ āđāļĄื่āļāļ§ัāļāļี่ 26 āļัāļāļ§āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2547 (āļ.āļĻ. 2004) āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āļ้āļģāđāļ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāđāļ้ āļāļĢāļĄāļุāļุāļิāļĒāļĄāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāđāļ้āļāļāļāļĄāļēāļāļĢāļāļēāļĢāļ้āļāļāļัāļāļ ัāļĒāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļื่āļāđāļืāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāđāļŦ้āļ้āļāļāļัāļāļัāļ§āđāļāļĒāđāļĄ่āļ้āļāļāļĢāļāļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĻāļāļēāļāļāļēāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļēāļĢ
āļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļีāļ
āđāļĄ้āļ§่āļēāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļ่āļāļĒāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ āđāļ่āļ็āđāļ็āļāļี่āļĢู้āļัāļāļัāļāļีāļ§่āļēāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļŠ่āļ§āļāļื่āļāđāļāļāļāđāļĨāļāļ้āļ§āļĒāđāļ่āļāļัāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļĄีāļ้āļāļĄูāļĨāđāļ่āļēāđāļ่āļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļĒāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļิ้āļāļี่āļูāļāļึāļ "āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ" āļี่āļĄีāļāļģāļāļēāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļĨ้āļēāļāļŠูāļāļี้ āļึ่āļāđāļĢีāļĒāļāļāļēāļĄāļĨāļģāļัāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļ่āļāļāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļ้āļัāļāļ่āļāđāļāļี้
6,100 āļีāļ่āļāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻัāļāļĢāļēāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļ่āļ§āļ 6,100 āļีāļ่āļāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻัāļāļĢāļēāļ āđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļāđāļĨāļāļิāļāđāļŦāļืāļ āļัāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāļั้āļāļŦิāļāļี่āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļ§่āļē "en:Storegga Slide" āļึ่āļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļāļĢั้āļāđāļŦāļ่āļิāļāļ่āļāļัāļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļ āđ āļĒāļēāļ§āļāļēāļāđāļ็āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĄื่āļāļี
āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่
āđāļāļี 1650 āļ่āļāļ āļ.āļĻ. āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāđāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่ (Santorini) āđāļāļ่āļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļี 1650 āļ่āļāļ āļ.āļĻ. āļึāļ 1600 āļ่āļāļ āļ.āļĻ. (āđāļ§āļĨāļēāļี่āđāļ่āļāļāļāļĒัāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļัāļāļāļĒู่) āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāđāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่āļāļāļāļāļĢีāļāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļ āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģ "āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ" āļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļั้āļāđāļ่ 100 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļึāļ 150 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āļึ่āļāļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāļ้āļēāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļĢีāļ (Crete) āļึ่āļāļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāļāļāļāđāļ 70 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ (45 āđāļĄāļĨ์) āļāļĢ้āļāļĄāļāļ§āļēāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļ้āļāđāļĄ้āļุāļāļ้āļāļี่āļึ้āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāđāļāļ§āļ่āļēāļĄิāđāļāļัāļ āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļื้āļāļี่āļ่āļēāđāļีāļĒāļ§āļāļุ่āļĄāļĢāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāļāļĢีāļāļāļāļŦāļēāļĒāļ§ัāļāđāļāļŦāļĄāļāđāļāļั่āļ§āļāļĢิāļāļāļē āļāļēāļāļัāļāļ§่āļēāļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģ "āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่" āļืāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļ้āļāļĄูāļĨāļี่āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļāļĨāđāļ (Plato) āđāļิāļāđāļĢāļāļัāļāļāļēāļĨāđāļāđāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļีāļĒāļāļ§āļĢāļĢāļāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāđāļ็āļāļāļ§āļิāļĒāļēāļĒāļัāļāđāļĢื่āļāļāđāļāļāđāļĨāļāļิāļŠ (Atlantis) āđāļĨāļ°āļัāļāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļāļāđāļื่āļāļ§่āļē āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ "āļāļēāļāđāļāļĢิāļี่" āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĢั้āļāļี้āļืāļāđāļŦāļĨ่āļāļี่āļĄāļēāļŠāļģāļัāļāļี่āļāļģāđāļāļŠู่āļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāļึāļāđāļĢื่āļāļāļĢāļēāļ§āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļĨāļ (Great Flood) āļี่āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļัāļĄāļ ีāļĢ์āļั้āļāļāļāļāļāļēāļ§āļĒิāļ§ āļāļĢิāļŠāđāļีāļĒāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļ§āļิāļŠāļĨāļēāļĄ
āđāļĄืāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠ
āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāđāļĄืāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠ (Lisbon, Portugal) āđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2298 (āļ.āļĻ. 1755) āļāļēāļ§āđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĄื่āļāļāļāļĢāļāļāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļĢั้āļāđāļŦāļ่āļี่āļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2298 (āļ.āļĻ. 1755) āđāļ่āļāļĨัāļāļ้āļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļāļัāļāļี āļ้āļ§āļĒāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļ้āđāļีāļĒāļāđāļĄ่āļี่āļāļēāļี āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļŦāļีāļ ัāļĒāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļāļāđāļāļĒัāļāđāļāļ§āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļ้āļ§āļĒāđāļื่āļāļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļŠāļāļēāļāļี่āļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļāļĨāļāļāļ ัāļĒ āļ้āļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļāļēāļāđāļāđāļŦāļĄ้ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļĢ่āļ§āļāļŦāļĨ่āļāļāļāļāđāļĻāļĐāļŠิ่āļāļāļāļāļ่āļēāļ āđ āđāļ้ āđāļĄื่āļāđāļิāļāđāļāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āļ็āļāļ āļ่āļāļāļŦāļ้āļēāļี่āļāļģāđāļāļāļ้āļģāļี่āļŠูāļāđāļŦāļ่ āļāļ°āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļ่āļēāđāļĢืāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļั้āļ āļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļ้āđāļŦืāļāļāđāļŦ้āļāļĨāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļĨāļāđāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļĢืāļāļŠิāļāļ้āļēāđāļ่āļē āđ āļี่āļāļĢัāļāļŦัāļāļัāļāđāļĨāļ°āļŦāļĨāļāļĨืāļĄāļัāļāđāļāđāļĨ้āļ§ āđāļāļĨ่āļึ้āļāļĄāļēāđāļŦ้āđāļŦ็āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļัāļāđāļāļ
āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āđāļĨāļ°āđāļāđāļŦāļĄ้āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļ่āļāđāļื่āļāļ āđāļ้āļŠัāļāļŦāļēāļĢāļāļēāļ§āđāļĄืāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāđāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 2 āđāļ 3 āļāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļāļēāļ§āđāļĄืāļāļāļั้āļāļŦāļĄāļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 275,000 āļāļ āļัāļāļึāļāļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļāļēāļĢāļŠāļģāļĢāļ§āļāļāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļāļ āļ§āļēāļŠāđāļ āļāļē āļāļēāļĄāļē āđāļĨāļ° āļāļĢิāļŠāđāļāđāļāļāļĢ์ āđāļāļĨัāļĄāļัāļŠ āļี่āđāļ็āļāđāļ§้āļ็āļŠูāļāļŦāļēāļĒāđāļ āļึāļāļĢāļēāļĄāļāļēāļāļēāļĢāļ่āļēāļ āđ āļāļģāļāļ§āļāļัāļāđāļĄ่āļ้āļ§āļāļูāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒ (āļĢāļ§āļĄāļึāļāļัāļ§āļāļĒ่āļēāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāđāļŦāļ่āļāļāļāļŠāļāļēāļัāļāļĒāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāđāļāļ Manueline āļāļāļāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠ) āļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļิāļāļēāļĻāļāļāļāļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāļĒัāļāļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļāļ°āđāļĒāļāļāļ°āļĒāļēāļāļ้āļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļĨ่āļēāļāļēāļāļēāļิāļāļĄāļāļāļāļัāļāļĢāļ§āļĢāļĢāļิāđāļāļĢāļุāđāļāļŠāļŠāļ°āļุāļāļĨāļāļ้āļ§āļĒ āļāļēāļ§āļĒุāđāļĢāļāđāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻāļāļ§āļĢāļĢāļĐāļี่ 18 āļāļĒāļēāļĒāļēāļĄāļี่āļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļ āļēāļĒāđāļ้āļāļĢāļāļāļāļāļāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļē āđāļĨāļ°āļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļื่āļāđāļāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļŦ่āļāđāļŦāļุāļāļĨ āļัāļāļāļĢัāļāļāļēāđāļāļĒุāļāļŠ่āļāļāļŠāļ§่āļēāļ (the Enlightenment) āđāļāļĒāđāļāļāļēāļ°āļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĒิ่āļ āļ§āļāļĨāđāļāļĢ์ āđāļ้āļัāļāļึāļāđāļĢื่āļāļāļึāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļ āđāļāļ§āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļิāļāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļĢัāļāļāļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĢิāļŠุāļāļิ์āļĒิ่āļāļึ้āļ āļัāļāđāļ่āļāļี่āļāļิāļāļēāļĒāđāļāļĒāļัāļāļāļĢัāļāļāļē āļิāļĄāļĄāļēāļูāđāļāļĨ āļāļēāļāļ์ (Immanuel Kant) āđāļāļŦāļัāļāļŠืāļ The Observation on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime āļั้āļāļ็āđāļ้āđāļĢāļāļัāļāļāļēāļĨāđāļāļāļēāļāļŠ่āļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļāļĒāļēāļĒāļēāļĄāļี่āļāļ°āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļึāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢ้āļēāļĒāļāļēāļāļāļāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļี่āļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāļāļĢั้āļāļี้
āļŠัāļāļ§์āļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļĢู้āđāļāļĒāļŠัāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļāļึāļāļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļี่āļāļ°āđāļิāļāļึ้āļ āđāļĨāļ°āđāļ้āļŦāļีāļ ัāļĒāļึ้āļāđāļāļĒัāļāļื้āļāļี่āļŠูāļ āļ่āļāļāļŦāļ้āļēāļี่āļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļ°āļัāļāđāļ้āļēāļั่āļ āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļี่āļĨิāļŠāļāļāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĢāļีāđāļĢāļāļี่āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āđāļ็āļāđāļāļāļŠāļēāļĢāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļ āđāļี่āļĒāļ§āļัāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļāļāļ§ีāļāļĒุāđāļĢāļ āļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļāļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°āļี้ āđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āđāļ่āļāļัāļāđāļāļĻāļĢีāļĨัāļāļāļēāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2547 āđāļĄื่āļāđāļิāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ āļัāļāļ§ิāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢ์āļāļēāļāļĢāļēāļĒāļŠāļāļŠัāļĒāļ§่āļēāļŠัāļāļ§์āļ่āļēāļ āđ āļāļēāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢัāļāļŠัāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāđāļĢāļĒ์āļĨีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļี่āļ่āļģ (subsonic Rayleigh waves) āđāļ้āļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļŦāļ§āļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļāļ่āļ§āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāđāļĄ่āļี่āļāļēāļี āļŦāļĢืāļāđāļĄ่āļี่āļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļ āļ่āļāļāļี่āļāļĨื่āļāđāļ้āļ้āļģāļāļ°āļัāļāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ่āļģāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ
āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§
āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§ āđāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāđāļĄื่āļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2426 (āļ.āļĻ. 1883) āļŦิāļāđāļŦāļĨāļ§āļĨāļ°āļĨāļēāļĒāđāļ้āļāļĨ่āļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļูāļāļ่āļāļāļāļāļĄāļēāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļ āđāļิāļāđāļāļĢāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļึ้āļāđāļ้āļิāļ āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļื้āļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļี่āļāļĒู่āđāļื้āļāļāļāļāđāļĨāļ°āļื้āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļĒุāļāļัāļ§āļĨāļ āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļึ้āļ āļāļēāļāļĨูāļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļē 40 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļāļēāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§āđāļāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒāļāļĢั้āļāļี้āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ, āļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ, āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāļāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļē, āļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļēāđāļ้, āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāļีāļāđāļāļ่āļāļāđāļāļāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐ āļŠ่āļ§āļāļื้āļāļี่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāđāļāļĨ้āđāļีāļĒāļāđāļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļ§āļēāđāļĨāļ°āļŠุāļĄāļēāļāļĢāļē āļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļŦāļĨāļ่āļēāļ่āļ§āļĄāļāļ°āļĨัāļāđāļ้āļēāđāļāļึāļāļื้āļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāļ āļēāļĒāđāļāļึ่āļāļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļ้āļēāđāļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļĒāļ°āļāļēāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļĄāļĨ์ āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļāļĒ่āļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļŦāļĨāļ§āļāđāļ่āļŠิ่āļāļĄีāļีāļ§ิāļāļี่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļāļĢั้āļāļี้ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāđāļ้āļēāđāļāļั้āļāļิ่āļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļีāļāđāļĨāļĒ āļัāļāļุāļัāļāļื้āļāļี่āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี้āđāļ้āļāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļ็āļāđāļāļāļ่āļēāļึāļāļĄีāļื่āļāļ§่āļē āđāļāļāļāļุāļĢัāļāļĐ์āļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļิāļูāļัāļāļูāļĨāļāļ (Ujung Kulon nature reserve)
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļิāļิāļ
āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļิāļิāļ (Pacific Tsunami) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāđāļāļēāļ° Aleutian āđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļŪāļēāļ§āļēāļĒāđāļĨāļ°āļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļ 165 āļāļ āļĄāļŦัāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļĢั้āļāļั้āļāļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāļ่āļāļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļŠāļģāļŦāļĢัāļāļāļĢāļĢāļāļēāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļั้āļāļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĄāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2492 (āļ.āļĻ. 1949)
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļิāļĨี
āļ.āļĻ. 2503 (āļ.āļĻ. 1960) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļิāļĨี (Chilean tsunami) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļĢั้āļāđāļŦāļ่āļิāļĨี (The Great Chilean Earthquake) āļĄีāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļ 9.5 āļĢิāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āļึ่āļāđāļ็āļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļี่āļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļ่āļēāļี่āđāļāļĒāļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้ āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļāļāļāļĨāļēāļāļāļēāļāđāļ้āļāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļĨี āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠāļĢ้āļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļ§ิāļัāļิāļŦāļēāļĒāļāļ°āļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļāļāļĢิāļŠāļ์āļĻāļāļ§āļĢāļĢāļĐāļี่ 20 āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļāļั้āļāļŦāļĄāļ āļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļึāļ 25 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāđāļāļิāļāļēāļ§āļē āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļ āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļēāļāđāļืāļāļ 22 āļั่āļ§āđāļĄāļāļั้āļ āļāļāļēāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āļĢāļ°āļุāļ§่āļēāļŠูāļāļึāļ 10 āļุāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģ āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļ§่āļēāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļĨāļ°āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāļĄāļĄāļēāļĄีāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļ 490 - 2,290 āļĢāļēāļĒ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļู๊āļāļāļĢāļēāļĒ์āđāļāļĒ์
āļ.āļĻ. 2507 (āļ.āļĻ. 1964) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļู๊āļāļāļĢāļēāļĒ์āđāļāļĒ์ (Good Friday Tsunami) āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļู๊āļāļāļĢāļēāļĒāđāļāļĒ์āļāļāļēāļ 9.2 āļĢิāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2507 (āļ.āļĻ. 1964) āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠิāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē, āļāļĢิāļิāļ āđāļāļĨัāļĄāđāļีāļĒ, āđāļāļĨิāļāļāļĢ์āđāļีāļĒāđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāđāļĄืāļāļāđāļāļิāļิāļāļāļāļĢ์āļāđāļ§āļŠāļ์āđāļāļŠāļŦāļĢัāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļē āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ 122 āļāļ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļึāļ 6 āđāļĄāļāļĢ āđāļāđāļĄืāļāļ Crescent City āļึ่āļāļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāđāļāđāļāļĨิāļāļāļĢ์āđāļีāļĒāļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ 11 āļāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ
āļ āļēāļāđāļŠāļāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĄื่āļāļāļĨāļēāļĒāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2547āļ.āļĻ. 2547 (āļ.āļĻ. 2004) - āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļĢั้āļāđāļĢāļāđāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ āđāļĄื่āļāļ§ัāļāļี่ 26 āļัāļāļ§āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2547 (āļ.āļĻ. 2004)āļĢāļ°āļĨāļāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļĨ่āļēāļŠุāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļāļ§่āļē 165,000 āļĢāļēāļĒ (āļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 105,000 āļĢāļēāļĒāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ) āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāđāļĨāļ°āļāļĢ่āļēāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļĄāļēāļāļี่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āļŦāļĢืāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļี่āđāļāļĨ้āļัāļāļุāļāđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļ่āļ āļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ, āđāļāļĒ, āđāļĨāļ°āļื้āļāļี่āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāļĄāļēāđāļĨāđāļีāļĒ āđāļāļāļāļึāļāļื้āļāļี่āļี่āļāļĒู่āļŦ่āļēāļāđāļāļĨāļāļāļāđāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢāđāļāļัāļāļāļĨāļēāđāļāļĻ, āļิāļāđāļีāļĒ, āļĻāļĢีāļĨัāļāļāļē, āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļĄัāļĨāļีāļĨāļ์, āđāļĨāļ°āđāļĄ้āļāļĢāļ°āļั่āļāđāļāļĄāļēāđāļĨีāļĒ, āđāļāļāļĒāļē, āđāļĨāļ°āđāļāļāļāļēāđāļีāļĒ āļึ่āļāļั้āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāđāļāļāđāļāļāļĢิāļāļēāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļ
āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāđāļāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒāđāļŦāļĨ่āļēāļี้ āļĒัāļāđāļĄ่āļĄีāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠāļĄāļูāļĢāļ์āļāļāļัāļāđāļ่āļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāđāļāļ ูāļĄิāļ āļēāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāđāļāļิāļิāļ āļŠ่āļ§āļāļŦāļึ่āļāđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļĄ่āļĄีāļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āđāļāļ ูāļĄิāļ āļēāļāļĄāļēāļāļēāļāđāļĨ้āļ§ āļัāļāļั้āļāđāļ่āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļāļāļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§āđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2426 (āļ.āļĻ. 1883) āļึ่āļāļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ 36,000 āļāļ āļ ัāļĒāļิāļัāļิāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļŠāļĄุāļāļĢāļิāļāđāļีāļĒāļĨ่āļēāļŠุāļāļี้āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้ āļĒูāđāļāļŠāđāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļāļ์āļāļēāļĢāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§่āļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļŦ่āļāļāļāļāļĄāļēāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāđāļŦāļ§ āđāļĢีāļĒāļāļĢ้āļāļāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļั้āļāļĢāļ°āļāļāđāļืāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļĨāļāļึ้āļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ้
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ้
āļ§ัāļāđāļ§āļĨāļē - āļŠāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļ
18 āļāļĢāļāļāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2549 - āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļ§āļē āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļāļีāđāļีāļĒ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāđāļ้
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāđāļāđāļีāļĒāđāļ้[1]
āļ§ัāļāđāļ§āļĨāļē - āļŠāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļ
āļ.āļĻ. 2067 (āļ.āļĻ. 1524) - āđāļāļĨ้āđāļĄืāļāļ Dabhol āļĢัāļāļĄāļŦāļēāļĢัāļāļāļ° āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ
2 āđāļĄāļĐāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2305 (āļ.āļĻ. 1762) - āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļĢāļ°āļัāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļāļĄ่āļē
16 āļĄิāļุāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2362 (āļ.āļĻ. 1819 - Rann of Kachchh āļĢัāļāļุāļāļēāļĢāļēāļ āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļāđāļีāļĒ
31 āļุāļĨāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2390 (āļ.āļĻ. 1847) - āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļิāđāļāļāļēāļĢ์āđāļŦāļ่
31 āļัāļāļ§āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2424 (āļ.āļĻ. 1881) - āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļĢ์āļิāđāļāļāļēāļĢ์
26 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2426 (āļ.āļĻ. 1883) - āļ ูāđāļāļēāđāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļ°āļัāļ§āļĢāļ°āđāļิāļ
28 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2488 (āļ.āļĻ. 1945) - āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ Mekran āļāļēāļĨูāļิāļŠāļāļēāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļēāđāļĨāļ°āđāļāļĢิāļāđāļีāļĒāļ
11 āļุāļĨāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2461 (āļ.āļĻ. 1918) - āđāļāļāļĢ์āđāļāļĢิāđāļ
18 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2472 (āļ.āļĻ. 1929) - āļิāļ§āļāļēāļ§āļāļ์āđāļĨāļāļ์
4 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) - āļŠāļēāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢัāļāđāļāļĄิāļิāļัāļ
18 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2489 (āļ.āļĻ. 1946) - āļŠāļēāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢัāļāđāļāļĄิāļิāļัāļ
14 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2383 (āļ.āļĻ. 1840) - āđāļāļĢāļ āļŠāđāļ§āļĨāļĨ์āđāļāđāļĄ่āļ้āļģāđāļāļĨāļēāđāļ§āļĢ์
17 āļāļĪāļĻāļิāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2415 (āļ.āļĻ. 1872) - āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļĄāļ
9 āļĄāļāļĢāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2469 (āļ.āļĻ. 1926) - āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļĄāļ
19 āļāļĪāļĐāļ āļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2507 (āļ.āļĻ. 1964) - āļั่āļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļŦāļืāļāļāļāļāļŠāļŦāļĢัāļāļāđāļĄāļĢิāļāļē
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļื่āļāđ āļี่āđāļāļĒāđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļีāļ
āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļāļีāļāļี่āļ่āļēāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļāđāļĨāļāļĒัāļāļĄีāļีāļāļĄāļēāļāļĄāļēāļĒ āļี่āļŠāļģāļัāļāđ āļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļ้āļ§āļĒ
20 āļĄāļāļĢāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2150 (āļ.āļĻ. 1607): āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļัāļāļāļāļี่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļ่āļāļāđāļāļāļัāļāļāļĪāļĐ (Bristol Channel) āļāļĄāļ้āļģāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļ āļāļāļ°āļี่āļ้āļēāļāđāļĢืāļāļāļี่āļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĻัāļĒāđāļĨāļ°āļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļŦ่āļāļูāļāļ้āļģāļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļāļŦāļēāļĒāļĨāļāđāļāđāļāļāļ°āđāļĨāļāļēāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļี่āđāļ่āļāļ่āļ§āļĄāļāļĒ่āļēāļ§āļĢāļ§āļāđāļĢ็āļ§āļึ่āļāļāļēāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ āļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุāļี่āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļ้āļģāļ่āļ§āļĄāđāļāļāļĢั้āļāļั้āļāļĒัāļāđāļ็āļāļี่āļāļāđāļีāļĒāļāļัāļāļāļĒู่ āđāļ่āļ็āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļ็āļāđāļāđāļ้āļ§่āļēāļāļēāļāļāļ°āđāļิāļāļāļēāļāļŠāļēāđāļŦāļุ 2 āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļ่āļ§āļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāđāļีāļĒāļ§āļัāļāđāļāļĒāļĄิāđāļ้āļāļēāļāļŦāļĄāļēāļĒāļĄāļēāļ่āļāļ āļืāļ āļŠāļ āļēāļāļิāļāļ้āļēāļāļēāļāļēāļĻāļี่āļ§ิāļāļĢิāļāļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāđāļĨāļ°āļ่āļ§āļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļŠāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āļŦāļุāļāļึ้āļāļŠูāļāļŠุāļ
āļĄāļŦัāļāļāļ ัāļĒāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļĢั้āļāđāļĨāļ§āļĢ้āļēāļĒāļี่āļŠุāļāļีāļāļāļĢั้āļāļŦāļึ่āļ āļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļŦāļĨāļēāļĒāļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļี่āļั้āļāļāļĒู่āļāļēāļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāđāļāļēāļ°āļāļēāļāļĢิāļู (Sanriku) āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļāđāļāļี āļ.āļĻ. 2439 (āļ.āļĻ. 1896) āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļāļ§่āļēāļึāļ 7 āļั้āļ (āļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 70 āđāļĄāļāļĢ) āļāļĢ้āļāļĄāļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļāļāļĨืāļāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļ 26,000 āļāļāļĨāļāļŠู่āļ้āļāļāļāļ°āđāļĨ
āļ.āļĻ. 2472 (āļ.āļĻ. 1929): āđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨāļี่āļŦāļĄู่āđāļāļēāļ° Aleutian āļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāļāļēāđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļŠู่āđāļāļēāļ°āļŪāļēāļ§āļēāļĒāļāļĨืāļāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāđāļ 159 āļĢāļēāļĒ (āļāļāļ°āļี่āļีāļ 5 āļĢāļēāļĒ āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāđāļāļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē)
āļ.āļĻ. 2501 (āļ.āļĻ. 1958): āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļิāļāļึ้āļāđāļāļ่āļēāļ§ Lituya Bay āļĢัāļāļāļ°āļĨāļēāļŠāļ้āļē āđāļ็āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāļēāļ°āļ้āļāļāļิ่āļ āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāļื้āļāļี่āđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļĨāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļģāļัāļāļ§āļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļāļēāļ°āđāļāļ่āļēāļ§ āđāļ่āđāļ้āļĢัāļāļāļēāļĢāļัāļāļึāļāđāļ§้āļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āļŠูāļāļี่āļŠุāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĢāļ°āļ§ัāļิāļāļēāļĢāļ์ āđāļāļĒāļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠูāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 500 āđāļĄāļāļĢ ( 1,500 āļุāļ) āđāļŦāļืāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļāļ้āļģāļāļ°āđāļĨ āļāļĨื่āļāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļĄ่āļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāđāļāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§āļāļāļāđāļāđāļāļĨāļāļēāļāđāļāļ§āļāļĒāļāļĢ์āļ (fjord) āļี่āļĨ้āļāļĄāļĢāļāļāļāļĒู่āđāļ้ āđāļ่āļ็āļāļģāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āļีāļ§ิāļ 2 āļĢāļēāļĒāļāļēāļāđāļĢืāļāļี่āđāļ้āļēāđāļāļāļģāļāļēāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļāļāļĒู่āđāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļั้āļ
āļ.āļĻ. 2519 (āļ.āļĻ. 1976): 16 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ (āđāļี่āļĒāļāļืāļ) āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļ ูāļĄิāļ āļēāļāļĢāļāļāļ่āļēāļ§āđāļĄāđāļĢ (āđāļĄืāļāļāđāļāļāļēāļāļēāđāļ) āļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļิāļĨิāļāļิāļāļŠ์ āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āļĄีāļู้āđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļĄāļēāļāļāļ§่āļē 5,000 āļĢāļēāļĒ
āļ.āļĻ. 2526 (āļ.āļĻ. 1983): āļāļĢāļ°āļāļēāļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļ 104 āļĢāļēāļĒāđāļāļ āļēāļāļāļ°āļ§ัāļāļāļāļāļāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāļĻāļี่āļุ่āļāđāļŠีāļĒāļีāļ§ิāļāļāļēāļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļี่āđāļāļĄāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāđāļิāļāđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āđāļāļื้āļāļี่āđāļāļĨ้āđāļีāļĒāļ
17 āļāļĢāļāļāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2541 (āļ.āļĻ. 1998): āļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļāļēāļัāļ§āļิāļ§āļิāļีāļāļĢ่āļēāļีāļ§ิāļāļู้āļāļāļāļģāļāļ§āļāļāļĢāļ°āļĄāļēāļ 2,200 āļĢāļēāļĒ āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļēāļāļี่āđāļิāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļĢāļ°āļัāļ 7.1 āļĢิāļāđāļāļāļĢ์āđāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļ 15 āļิāđāļĨāđāļĄāļāļĢ āļāļāļāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļāļēāļัāļ§āļิāļ§āļิāļี āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļāļŦ่āļēāļāļāļēāļāđāļ§āļĨāļēāļั้āļāđāļีāļĒāļāđāļ่ 10 āļāļēāļี āļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļŠูāļ 12 āđāļĄāļāļĢāļ็āđāļāļĨื่āļāļāđāļ้āļēāļāļĨ่āļĄāļāļēāļĒāļั่āļ āđāļāļāļāļ°āļี่āļĢāļ°āļัāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢุāļāđāļĢāļāļāļāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļĒัāļāđāļĄāļŠāļēāļĄāļēāļĢāļāļี่āļāļ°āļ่āļāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āļāļāļēāļāđāļŦāļ่āļัāļāļāļĨ่āļēāļ§āđāļ้āđāļāļĒāļāļĢāļāđāļ่āļāļēāļĢāļี่āđāļิāļāļāļĨื่āļāļĒัāļāļĐ์āđāļ้āļั้āļ āđāļื่āļāļัāļāļ§่āļē āđāļื่āļāļāļāļēāļāđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļŦāļ§āļŠ่āļāļāļĨāđāļŦ้āđāļ่āļāļิāļāđāļ้āļāļ°āđāļĨāđāļิāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļĨื่āļāļāļัāļ§ āđāļĨāļ°āđāļŦāļุāļāļēāļĢāļ์āļŦāļĨัāļāļี้āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāļึ้āļ āļŠāļāļāļŦāļĄู่āļ้āļēāļāļāļāļāļāļēāļัāļ§āļิāļ§āļิāļีāļืāļ āļāļēāļĢāļāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļ§āļēāļĢāļēāļู āļูāļāļāļģāļĨāļēāļĒāđāļĢีāļĒāļāđāļ็āļāļŦāļ้āļēāļāļĨāļāļ
āļāļēāļĢāļāļģāļāļēāļĒāļ§่āļēāļāļ°āđāļิāļāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิ
āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļ็āļāđāļāđāļ้āļ§่āļēāđāļ็āļāļāļĨื่āļāļŠึāļāļēāļĄิāđāļāļāļĢิāđāļ§āļ [2]
9 āļĄิāļุāļāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2456 (āļ.āļĻ. 1913) - āļĨāļāļāļāļāļĢ์āļ āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี
6 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2466 (āļ.āļĻ. 1923) - āļĢ็āļāļāļāļ°āđāļ§āļĒ์āļāļēāļĢ์āļ, āļāļ§ีāļ, āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āļĒāļāļĢ์āļ
8 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2467 (āļ.āļĻ. 1924) - āđāļāļี่ āđāļāļĢ์āđāļĨāļāļ์, āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āļĒāļāļĢ์āļ
19 āļŠิāļāļŦāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2474 (āļ.āļĻ. 1931) - āđāļĄืāļāļāđāļāļāđāļĨāļāļิāļāļิāļี āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี
21 āļัāļāļĒāļēāļĒāļ āļ.āļĻ. 2481 (āļ.āļĻ. 1938) - āđāļŪāļāļĢ์āļĢิāđāļāļ, āļāļēāļĒāļั่āļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี
3-4 āļāļĢāļāļāļēāļāļĄ āļ.āļĻ. 2535 (āļ.āļĻ. 1992) - āļŦāļēāļāđāļāļĒ์āđāļāļāļē āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļāļĨāļāļĢิāļāļē
āļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĄāļีāļāļāļāļŠāļ°āđāļ็āļāļāļēāļ§ - āļāļĢิāđāļ§āļāļāļāļĄāļŠ์ āđāļāļāļĒāļāļ āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāļิāļ§āđāļāļāļĢ์āļี āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļāļ่āļēāļ§āđāļāļŠāļ°āļีāļ (Chesapeake Bay) āđāļāđāļāļāļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļ§āļāļĢ์āļิāđāļีāļĒāđāļĨāļ° āļĄāļĨāļĢัāļāđāļĄāļĢิāđāļĨāļāļ์
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